Muscular dystrophy

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Muscular Dystrophy
ICD-10 G71.0
ICD-9 359.0-359.1
MedlinePlus 001190
MeSH D009136

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [2]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Kalsang Dolma, M.B.B.S.[3]

Overview

Muscular dystrophy refers to a group of genetic, hereditary muscle diseases that cause progressive muscle weakness.[1][2] Muscular dystrophies are characterized by progressive skeletal muscle weakness, defects in muscle proteins, and the death of muscle cells and tissue.[3] Nine diseases including Duchenne, Becker, limb girdle, congenital, facioscapulohumeral, myotonic, oculopharyngeal, distal, and Emery-Dreifuss are always classified as muscular dystrophy[4] but there are more than 100 diseases in total with similarities to muscular dystrophy. Most types of MD are multi-system disorders with manifestations in body systems including the heart, gastrointestinal and nervous systems, endocrine glands, skin, eyes and other organs.[4]

Historical Perspective

In the 1860s, descriptions of boys who grew progressively weaker, lost the ability to walk, and died at an early age became more prominent in medical journals. In the following decade, French neurologist Guillaume Duchenne gave a comprehensive account of thirteen boys with the most common and severe form of the disease, which now carries his name—Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

It soon became evident that the disease had more than one form.[4]

Classification

Type OMIM Gene Description
Becker's muscular dystrophy 300376 DMD
  • Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) is a less severe variant of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
  • It is caused by the production of a truncated, but partially functional form of dystrophin.[4] Survival is usually into old age.[5]
  • Affects only boys (with extremely rare exceptions)
Congenital muscular dystrophy Multiple Multiple
  • Age at onset: birth; symptoms include general muscle weakness and possible joint deformities; disease progresses slowly; shortened life span.[6]
  • Congenital muscular dystrophy includes several disorders with a range of symptoms.
  • Muscle degeneration may be mild or severe. Problems may be restricted to skeletal muscle, or muscle degeneration may be paired with effects on the brain and other organ systems.
  • A number of the forms of the congenital muscular dystrophies are caused by defects in proteins that are thought to have some relationship to the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex and to the connections between muscle cells and their surrounding cellular structure.
  • Some forms of congenital muscular dystrophy show severe brain malformations, such as lissencephaly and hydrocephalus.[4]
Duchenne muscular dystrophy 310200 DMD
  • Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is the most common childhood form of muscular dystrophy, it generally affects only boys (with extremely rare exceptions), becoming clinically evident when a child begins walking.
  • By age 10, the child may need braces for walking and by age 12, most patients are confined to a wheelchair.[7]
  • Patients usually die around age 25, but this depends from person to person.[7]
  • In the early 1990s, researchers identified the gene for the protein dystrophin which, when absent, causes DMD. The amount of dystrophin correlates with the severity of the disease (i.e. the less dystrophin present, the more severe the phenotype). Since the gene is on the X chromosome, this disorder affects primarily males, and females who are carriers have milder symptoms. Sporadic mutations in this gene occur frequently, accounting for a third of cases. The remaining two-thirds of cases are inherited in a recessive pattern.
  • Dystrophin is part of a complex structure involving several other protein components. The "dystrophin-glycoprotein complex" helps anchor the structural skeleton (cytoskeleton) within the muscle cells, through the outer membrane (sarcolemma) of each cell, to the tissue framework (extracellular matrix) that surrounds each cell.
  • Due to defects in this assembly, contraction of the muscle leads to disruption of the outer membrane of the muscle cells and eventual weakening and wasting of the muscle.[4]
Distal muscular dystrophy 254130 DYSF
  • Distal muscular dystrophies' age at onset: 20 to 60 years; symptoms include weakness and wasting of muscles of the hands, forearms, and lower legs; progress is slow and not life-threatening.[5]
  • Miyoshi myopathy, one of the distal muscular dystrophies, causes initial weakness in the calf muscles, and is caused by defects in the same gene responsible for one form of LGMD (Limb Girdle Muscular Dystrophy).[4]
Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy 310300, 181350 EMD, LMNA
  • Emery-Dreifuss Muscular Dystrophy patients normally present in childhood and the early teenage years with contractures.
  • Clinical signs include muscle weakness and wasting, starting in the distal limb muscles and progressing to involve the limb-girdle muscles. Most patients also suffer from cardiac conduction defects and arrhythmias which, if left untreated, increase the risk of stroke and sudden death.
  • There are three subtypes of Emery-Dreifuss Muscular Dystrophy, distinguishable by their pattern of inheritance: X-Linked, autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive. The X-linked form is the most common. Each type varies in prevalence and symptoms.
  • The disease is caused by mutations in the LMNA gene, or more commonly, the EMD gene. Both genes encode for protein componenets of the nuclear envelope. However, how the pathogenesis of these mutations is not well understood.[8]
Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy 158900 DUX4
  • Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) initially affects the muscles of the face, shoulders, and upper arms with progressive weakness. Symptoms usually develop in the teenage years. Some affected individuals become severely disabled.
  • The pattern of inheritance is autosomal dominant, but there are a significant number of spontaneous mutations.
  • Seminal research published in August 2010 documents that two defects are needed for FSHD, which for the first time provides a unifying theory for the underlying genetics of FSHD. The first is the deletion of D4Z4 repeats and the second is a "toxic gain of function" of the DUX4 gene.[4][9]

[10]

  • Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) occurs both in males and females.
Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy Multiple Multiple
  • Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy is also called LGMD. Affects both boys and girls. LGMDs all show a similar distribution of muscle weakness, affecting both upper arms and legs.
  • Many forms of LGMD have been identified, showing different patterns of inheritance (autosomal recessive vs. autosomal dominant).
  • In an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance, an individual receives two copies of the defective gene, one from each parent. The recessive LGMDs are more frequent than the dominant forms, and usually have childhood or teenage onset. The dominant LGMDs usually show adult onset. Some of the recessive forms have been associated with defects in proteins that make up the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex.[4]
  • Though a person normally leads a normal life with some assistance, in some extreme cases, death from LGMD occurs due to cardiopulmonary complications.[11]
Myotonic muscular dystrophy 160900, 602668 DMPK, ZNF9
  • Myotonic muscular dystrophy is an autosomal dominant condition that presents with myotonia (delayed relaxation of muscles) as well as muscle wasting and weakness.[12] * Myotonic dystrophy varies in severity and manifestations and affects many body systems in addition to skeletal muscles, including the heart, endocrine organs, eyes, and gastrointestinal tract.
  • Myotonic muscular dystrophy type 1 (DM1), also known as Steinert disease, is the most common adult form of muscular dystrophy. It results from the expansion of a short (CTG) repeat in the DNA sequence of the DMPK (myotonic dystrophy protein kinase) gene.
  • Myotonic muscular dystrophy type 2 (DM2) is much rarer and is a result of the expansion of the CCTG repeat in the ZNF9 (zinc finger protein 9) gene. While the exact mechanisms of action are not known, these molecular changes may interfere with the production of important muscle proteins.[4]
Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy 164300 PABPN1
  • Oculopharyngeal MD's age at onset: 40 to 70 years.
  • Symptoms affect muscles of eyelids, face, and throat followed by pelvic and shoulder muscle weakness, has been attributed to a short repeat expansion in the genome which regulates the translation of some genes into functional proteins.[4]

Pathophysiology

Genetic

These conditions are inherited, and the different muscular dystrophies follow various inheritance patterns

The best-known type, Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), is inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern, meaning that the mutated gene that causes the disorder is located on the X chromosome, one of the two sex chromosomes, and is thus considered sex-linked. In males (who have only one X chromosome) one altered copy of the gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the condition. In females (who have two X chromosomes) a mutation must generally be present in both copies of the gene to cause the disorder (relatively rare exceptions, manifesting carriers, do occur due to dosage compensation/X-inactivation). Males are therefore affected by X-linked recessive disorders much more often than females. A characteristic of X-linked inheritance is that fathers cannot pass X-linked traits to their sons. In about two thirds of DMD cases, an affected male inherits the mutation from a mother who carries one altered copy of the DMD gene. The other one third of cases probably result from new mutations in the gene. Females who carry one copy of a DMD mutation may have some signs and symptoms related to the condition (such as muscle weakness and cramping), but these are typically milder than the signs and symptoms seen in affected males. Duchenne muscular dystrophy and Becker's muscular dystrophy are caused by mutations of the gene for the dystrophin protein and lead to an overabundance of the enzyme creatine kinase.[13][14] The dystrophin gene is the second largest gene in mammals.[15]

Differential Diagnosis

Muscular dystrophy must be differentiated from other diseases that cause muscle weakness, hypotonia, or paralysis:[16][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]

Diseases History and Physical Diagnostic tests Other Findings
Motor Deficit Sensory deficit Cranial nerve Involvement Autonomic dysfunction Proximal/Distal/Generalized Ascending/Descending/Systemic Unilateral (UL)

or Bilateral (BL)

or

No Lateralization (NL)

Onset Lab or Imaging Findings Specific test
Adult Botulism + - + + Generalized Descending BL Sudden Toxin test Blood, Wound, or Stool culture Diplopia, Hyporeflexia, Hypotonia, possible respiratory paralysis
Infant Botulism + - + + Generalized Descending BL Sudden Toxin test Blood, Wound, or Stool culture Flaccid paralysis (Floppy baby syndrome), possible respiratory paralysis
Guillian-Barre syndrome[32] + - - - Generalized Ascending BL Insidious CSF: ↑Protein

↓Cells

Clinical & Lumbar Puncture Progressive ascending paralysis following infection, possible respiratory paralysis
Eaton Lambert syndrome[33] + - + + Generalized Systemic BL Intermittent EMG, repetitive nerve stimulation test (RNS) Voltage gated calcium channel (VGCC) antibody Diplopia, ptosis, improves with movement (as the day progresses)
Myasthenia gravis[34] + - + + Generalized Systemic BL Intermittent EMG, Edrophonium test Ach receptor antibody Diplopia, ptosis, worsening with movement (as the day progresses)
Electrolyte disturbance[35] + + - - Generalized Systemic BL Insidious Electrolyte panel ↓Ca++, ↓Mg++, ↓K+ Possible arrhythmia
Organophosphate toxicity[36] + + - + Generalized Ascending BL Sudden Clinical diagnosis: physical exam & history Clinical suspicion confirmed with RBC AchE activity History of exposure to insecticide or living in farming environment. with : Diarrhea, Urination, Miosis, Bradycardia, Lacrimation, Emesis, Salivation, Sweating
Tick paralysis (Dermacentor tick)[37] + - - - Generalized Ascending BL Insidious Clinical diagnosis: physical exam & history - History of outdoor activity in Northeastern United States. The tick is often still latched to the patient at presentation (often in head and neck area)
Tetrodotoxin poisoning[38] + - + + Generalized Systemic BL Sudden Clinical diagnosis: physical exam & dietary history - History of consumption of puffer fish species.
Stroke[39] +/- +/- +/- +/- Generalized Systemic UL Sudden MRI +ve for ischemia or hemorrhage MRI Sudden unilateral motor and sensory deficit in a patient with a history of atherosclerotic risk factors (diabetes, hypertension, smoking) or atrial fibrillation.
Poliomyelitis[40] + + + +/- Proximal > Distal Systemic BL or UL Sudden PCR of CSF Asymmetric paralysis following a flu-like syndrome.
Transverse myelitis[41] + + + + Proximal > Distal Systemic BL or UL Sudden MRI & Lumbar puncture MRI History of chronic viral or autoimmune disease (e.g. HIV)
Neurosyphilis[42][31] + + - +/- Generalized Systemic BL Insidious MRI & Lumbar puncture CSF VDRL-specifc

CSF FTA-Ab -sensitive[43]

History of unprotected sex or multiple sexual partners.

History of genital ulcer (chancre), diffuse maculopapular rash.

Muscular dystrophy[44] + - - - Proximal > Distal Systemic BL Insidious Genetic testing Muscle biopsy Progressive proximal lower limb weakness with calf pseudohypertrophy in early childhood. Gower sign positive.
Multiple sclerosis exacerbation[45] + + + + Generalized Systemic NL Sudden ↑CSF IgG levels

(monoclonal)

Clinical assessment and MRI [46] Blurry vision, urinary incontinence, fatigue
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis[47] + - - - Generalized Systemic BL Insidious Normal LP (to rule out DDx) MRI & LP Patient initially presents with upper motor neuron deficit (spasticity) followed by lower motor neuron deficit (flaccidity).
Inflammatory myopathy[48] + - - - Proximal > Distal Systemic UL or BL Insidious Elevated CK & Aldolase Muscle biopsy Progressive proximal muscle weakness in 3rd to 5th decade of life. With or without skin manifestations.

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Prognosis

  • The severity of disability depends on the type of muscular dystrophy. All types of muscular dystrophy slowly get worse, but how fast this happens varies widely.
  • Some types of muscular dystrophy, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, are deadly. Other types cause little disability and people with them have a normal lifespan.

Complications

Diagnosis

Symptoms

Principal symptoms include:

  • Mental retardation (only present in some types of the condition)
  • Muscle weakness that slowly gets worse
    • Delayed development of muscle motor skills
    • Difficulty using one or more muscle groups
    • Drooling
    • Eyelid drooping (ptosis)
    • Frequent falls
    • Loss of strength in a muscle or group of muscles as an adult
    • Loss in muscle size(muscle atrophy)
    • Problems walking (delayed walking)

Physical Examination

Heart

Arrythmia may be present.

Extremities

Laboratory Findings

Creatine Phosphokinase

Early in the disease process, creatine phosphokinase (CPK) levels are 50-300 times greater than normal levels, but the levels tend to decrease as the muscle mass decreases.

Electrocardiography

May show right ventricular strain pattern.

Electromyography

Myopathic disease has these defining EMG characteristics:

Muscle Biopsy

  • The diagnosis of muscular dystrophy is based on the results of a muscle biopsy. In some cases, a DNA blood test may be all that is needed.
  • The optimal site for biopsy is the vastus lateralis muscle.

Treatment

  • There is no known cure for muscular dystrophy. Inactivity (such as bed-rest and even sitting for long periods) can worsen the disease.
  • Physical therapy and orthopedic instruments (e.g., wheelchairs, standing frames) may be helpful.
  • Physical therapy to prevent contractures (a condition when an individual with a muscular dystrophy grows and the muscles don't move with the bones and can easily be slowed down and/or make the individual's body straighter by daily physical therapy), orthoses (orthopedic appliances used for support) and corrective orthopedic surgery may be needed to improve the quality of life in some cases.
  • The cardiac problems that occur with Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy and myotonic muscular dystrophy may require a pacemaker.
  • The myotonia (delayed relaxation of a muscle after a strong contraction) occurring in myotonic muscular dystrophy may be treated with medications such as quinine, phenytoin, or mexiletine.

Research Projects

A grid computing-based research project called "Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy" was launched on December 19, 2006 by Décrypthon (a collaboration between French Muscular Dystrophy Association, French National Center for Scientific Research and IBM).

The Jain Foundation is involved in research into Miyoshi myopathy, a form of distal muscular dystrophy and LGMD2B, a limb-girdle muscular dystrophy.[49]

MY0-029

Main article: Stamulumab

MYO-029 is an experimental myostatin inhibiting drug developed by Wyeth Pharmaceuticals for the treatment of muscular dystrophy. Myostatin is a protein that inhibits the growth of muscle tissue, MYO-029 is a recombinant human antibody designed to bind and inhibit the activity of myostatin. A 2005/2006 trial was completed by Wyeth in Collegeville, PA. As of April 2007, the results of the study have not yet been made public, but it is one of the few known drugs in development for the treatment for muscular dystrophy.

National research and support in the United States

Within the United States, the three primary federally funded organizations that focus on Muscular Dystrophy include the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS), and National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD).[4]

In 1966, the Muscular Dystrophy Association began its annual Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon, which has arguably done more to raise awareness of muscular dystrophy than any other event or initiative.

On December 18, 2001 the MD CARE Act was signed into law and amends the Public Health Service Act to provide research for the various muscular dystrophies. This law also established the Muscular Dystrophy Coordinating Committee to help focus research efforts through a coherent research strategy.[50][51]

References

  1. ↑ Harrison's Principle's of Internal Medicine. 2005. p. 2527. doi:10.1036/0071402357. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ Muscular Dystrophy Campaign Retrieved 9 April 2007.
  3. ↑ Emery AE (2002). "The muscular dystrophies". Lancet. 359 (9307): 687–695. PMID 11879882.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 May 2006 report to Congress on Implementation of the MD CARE Act, as submitted by Department of Health and Human Service's National Institutes of Health
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 [1]: MD USA Website (accessed 03SEP2007)
  6. ↑ "Congenital Muscular Dystrophy (CMD)". MDA. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000705.htm
  8. ↑ Emedicine re EDMD Retrieved 30 July 2007.
  9. ↑ Kolata, Gina (19 August 2010). "Reanimated 'Junk' DNA Is Found to Cause Disease". New York Times. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  10. ↑ Lemmers, Richard (19 August 2010). "A Unifying Genetic Model for Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy". Science. 329 (5999): 1650–3. doi:10.1126/science.1189044. PMID 20724583. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ Jenkins, Simon P.R. (2005). Sports Science Handbook:I - Z. Brentwood, Essex: Multi-Science Publ. Co. p. 121. ISBN 0906522-37-4.
  12. ↑ Turner, C (2010). "The myotonic dystrophies: diagnosis and management". J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 81: 358–367. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2008.158261. PMID 20176601. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  13. ↑ Medline Plus Medical Encyclopedia Retrieved 8 May 2007.
  14. ↑ Centres for Disease Control and Prevention Retrieved 8 May 2007.
  15. ↑ Living with Cerebral Palsy Retrieved 8 May 2007.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Kira R (February 2018). "[Acute Flaccid Myelitis]". Brain Nerve (in Japanese). 70 (2): 99–112. doi:10.11477/mf.1416200962. PMID 29433111.
  17. ↑ Hopkins SE (November 2017). "Acute Flaccid Myelitis: Etiologic Challenges, Diagnostic and Management Considerations". Curr Treat Options Neurol. 19 (12): 48. doi:10.1007/s11940-017-0480-3. PMID 29181601.
  18. ↑ Messacar K, Schreiner TL, Van Haren K, Yang M, Glaser CA, Tyler KL, Dominguez SR (September 2016). "Acute flaccid myelitis: A clinical review of US cases 2012-2015". Ann. Neurol. 80 (3): 326–38. doi:10.1002/ana.24730. PMC 5098271. PMID 27422805.
  19. ↑ Chong PF, Kira R, Mori H, Okumura A, Torisu H, Yasumoto S, Shimizu H, Fujimoto T, Hanaoka N, Kusunoki S, Takahashi T, Oishi K, Tanaka-Taya K (February 2018). "Clinical Features of Acute Flaccid Myelitis Temporally Associated With an Enterovirus D68 Outbreak: Results of a Nationwide Survey of Acute Flaccid Paralysis in Japan, August-December 2015". Clin. Infect. Dis. 66 (5): 653–664. doi:10.1093/cid/cix860. PMC 5850449. PMID 29028962.
  20. ↑ Messacar K, Asturias EJ, Hixon AM, Van Leer-Buter C, Niesters H, Tyler KL, Abzug MJ, Dominguez SR (August 2018). "Enterovirus D68 and acute flaccid myelitis-evaluating the evidence for causality". Lancet Infect Dis. 18 (8): e239–e247. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30094-X. PMID 29482893. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  21. ↑ Chen IJ, Hu SC, Hung KL, Lo CW (September 2018). "Acute flaccid myelitis associated with enterovirus D68 infection: A case report". Medicine (Baltimore). 97 (36): e11831. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000011831. PMC 6133480. PMID 30200066.
  22. ↑ "Botulism | Botulism | CDC".
  23. ↑ McCroskey LM, Hatheway CL (May 1988). "Laboratory findings in four cases of adult botulism suggest colonization of the intestinal tract". J. Clin. Microbiol. 26 (5): 1052–4. PMC 266519. PMID 3290234.
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  28. ↑ Gilhus NE (2011). "Lambert-eaton myasthenic syndrome; pathogenesis, diagnosis, and therapy". Autoimmune Dis. 2011: 973808. doi:10.4061/2011/973808. PMC 3182560. PMID 21969911.
  29. ↑ Krishnan C, Kaplin AI, Deshpande DM, Pardo CA, Kerr DA (May 2004). "Transverse Myelitis: pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment". Front. Biosci. 9: 1483–99. PMID 14977560.
  30. ↑ Amato AA, Greenberg SA (December 2013). "Inflammatory myopathies". Continuum (Minneap Minn). 19 (6 Muscle Disease): 1615–33. doi:10.1212/01.CON.0000440662.26427.bd. PMID 24305450.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Berger JR, Dean D (2014). "Neurosyphilis". Handb Clin Neurol. 121: 1461–72. doi:10.1016/B978-0-7020-4088-7.00098-5. PMID 24365430.
  32. ↑ Talukder RK, Sutradhar SR, Rahman KM, Uddin MJ, Akhter H (2011). "Guillian-Barre syndrome". Mymensingh Med J. 20 (4): 748–56. PMID 22081202.
  33. ↑ Merino-Ramírez MÁ, Bolton CF (2016). "Review of the Diagnostic Challenges of Lambert-Eaton Syndrome Revealed Through Three Case Reports". Can J Neurol Sci. 43 (5): 635–47. doi:10.1017/cjn.2016.268. PMID 27412406.
  34. ↑ Gilhus NE (2016). "Myasthenia Gravis". N Engl J Med. 375 (26): 2570–2581. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1602678. PMID 28029925.
  35. ↑ Ozono K (2016). "[Diagnostic criteria for vitamin D-deficient rickets and hypocalcemia-]". Clin Calcium. 26 (2): 215–22. doi:CliCa1602215222 Check |doi= value (help). PMID 26813501.
  36. ↑ Kamanyire R, Karalliedde L (2004). "Organophosphate toxicity and occupational exposure". Occup Med (Lond). 54 (2): 69–75. PMID 15020723.
  37. ↑ Pecina CA (2012). "Tick paralysis". Semin Neurol. 32 (5): 531–2. doi:10.1055/s-0033-1334474. PMID 23677663.
  38. ↑ Bane V, Lehane M, Dikshit M, O'Riordan A, Furey A (2014). "Tetrodotoxin: chemistry, toxicity, source, distribution and detection". Toxins (Basel). 6 (2): 693–755. doi:10.3390/toxins6020693. PMC 3942760. PMID 24566728.
  39. ↑ Kuntzer T, Hirt L, Bogousslavsky J (1996). "[Neuromuscular involvement and cerebrovascular accidents]". Rev Med Suisse Romande. 116 (8): 605–9. PMID 8848683.
  40. ↑ Laffont I, Julia M, Tiffreau V, Yelnik A, Herisson C, Pelissier J (2010). "Aging and sequelae of poliomyelitis". Ann Phys Rehabil Med. 53 (1): 24–33. doi:10.1016/j.rehab.2009.10.002. PMID 19944665.
  41. ↑ West TW (2013). "Transverse myelitis--a review of the presentation, diagnosis, and initial management". Discov Med. 16 (88): 167–77. PMID 24099672.
  42. ↑ Liu LL, Zheng WH, Tong ML, Liu GL, Zhang HL, Fu ZG; et al. (2012). "Ischemic stroke as a primary symptom of neurosyphilis among HIV-negative emergency patients". J Neurol Sci. 317 (1–2): 35–9. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2012.03.003. PMID 22482824.
  43. ↑ Ho EL, Marra CM (2012). "Treponemal tests for neurosyphilis--less accurate than what we thought?". Sex Transm Dis. 39 (4): 298–9. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31824ee574. PMC 3746559. PMID 22421697.
  44. ↑ Falzarano MS, Scotton C, Passarelli C, Ferlini A (2015). "Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: From Diagnosis to Therapy". Molecules. 20 (10): 18168–84. doi:10.3390/molecules201018168. PMID 26457695.
  45. ↑ Filippi M, Preziosa P, Rocca MA (2016). "Multiple sclerosis". Handb Clin Neurol. 135: 399–423. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53485-9.00020-9. PMID 27432676.
  46. ↑ Giang DW, Grow VM, Mooney C, Mushlin AI, Goodman AD, Mattson DH; et al. (1994). "Clinical diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. The impact of magnetic resonance imaging and ancillary testing. Rochester-Toronto Magnetic Resonance Study Group". Arch Neurol. 51 (1): 61–6. PMID 8274111.
  47. ↑ Riva N, Agosta F, Lunetta C, Filippi M, Quattrini A (2016). "Recent advances in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis". J Neurol. 263 (6): 1241–54. doi:10.1007/s00415-016-8091-6. PMC 4893385. PMID 27025851.
  48. ↑ Michelle EH, Mammen AL (2015). "Myositis Mimics". Curr Rheumatol Rep. 17 (10): 63. doi:10.1007/s11926-015-0541-0. PMID 26290112.
  49. ↑ Jain Foundation Inc: Research into Miyoshi/LGMD2B
  50. ↑ H.R. 717--107th Congress (2001): MD-CARE Act, GovTrack.us (database of federal legislation), (accessed Jul 29, 2007)
  51. ↑ Public Law 107-84, PDF as retrieved from NIH website


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da:Muskelsvind de:Muskeldystrophie fa:دیستروفی عضلانی it:Distrofia muscolare nl:Ziekte van Duchenne no:Duchenne muskeldystrofi

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