View source for Short-term effects of alcohol

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==Overview==
The '''short-term effects of alcohol''' on the human body can take several forms.

[[Alcohol]], specifically [[ethanol]], is a potent [[central nervous system]] [[depressant]], with a range of [[side effects]]. The amount and circumstances of consumption play a large part in determining the extent of [[intoxication]]; for example, consuming alcohol after a heavy meal is less likely to produce visible signs of intoxication than consumption on an empty stomach. [[Hydration]] also plays a role, especially in determining the extent of [[hangover]]s. The concentration of alcohol in blood is usually measured in terms of the [[blood alcohol content]].

Alcohol has a [[biphasic]] effect on the body, which is to say that its effects change over time.<ref name="potsdam">{{Cite web|url=http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/HealthIssues/1100827422.html|title=How Alcohol Effects Us: The Biphasic Curve|accessdate=2007-12-12|publisher=State University of New York|author=Hanson, David J|work=Alcohol: Problems and Solutions|format=html}}</ref> Initially, alcohol generally produces feelings of relaxation and cheerfulness, but further consumption can lead to blurred vision and coordination problems. [[Cell membrane]]s are highly permeable to alcohol, so once alcohol is in the bloodstream it can diffuse into nearly every biological tissue of the body.  After [[binge drinking|excessive drinking]], [[unconsciousness]] can occur and extreme levels of consumption can lead to alcohol poisoning and [[death]] (a concentration in the blood stream of 0.55% will [[LD50|kill half of those affected]]). Death can also occur through [[asphyxiation]] by [[vomit]].  An appropriate [[first aid]] response to an unconscious, drunken person is to place them in the [[recovery position]].

==Metabolism of alcohol and action on the liver== 
{{Main|Alcohol metabolism}}
The liver breaks down alcohols into [[acetaldehyde]] by the enzyme [[alcohol dehydrogenase]], and then into [[acetic acid]] by the enzyme [[acetaldehyde dehydrogenase]]. Next, the acetate is converted into [[fats]] or [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water]]. Chronic drinkers, however, so tax this metabolic pathway that things go awry: fatty acids build up as plaques in the [[capillary|capillaries]] around liver cells and those cells begin to die, which leads to the liver disease [[cirrhosis]]. The liver is part of the body's filtration system which, if damaged, allows certain toxins to build up, leading to symptoms of [[jaundice]]. 

Some people's DNA code calls for a different acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, resulting in a more potent alcohol dehydrogenase. This leads to a buildup of acetaldehyde after alcohol consumption, causing the [[alcohol flush reaction]] with hangover-like symptoms such as [[Flushing (physiology)|flushing]], [[nausea]], and dizziness. These people are unable to drink much alcohol before feeling sick, and are therefore ''less'' susceptible to [[alcoholism]].<ref>http://endeavor.med.nyu.edu/~strone01/doctor.html</ref><ref>http://www.webremedies.com/quit_alcohol/know.php#5</ref> This adverse reaction can be artificially reproduced by drugs such as [[disulfiram]], which are used to treat chronic alcoholism by inducing an acute sensitivity to alcohol.

==Effect by dosage==
Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on the subject. 

===Overview===
The following lists the effects of alcohol on the body, depending on the [[blood alcohol concentration]] or BAC.<ref>http://www.radford.edu/~kcastleb/bac.html</ref><ref>http://apps.carleton.edu/campus/wellness/info/alcohol/bac/</ref><ref>http://www.drugrehab.co.uk/alcohol.htm</ref> Also, tolerance varies considerably between individuals.

:'''Please note: the BAC percentages provided below are just estimates and used for illustrative purposes only. They are not meant to be an exhaustive reference; please refer to a healthcare professional if more information is needed.'''

*[[Euphoria (emotion)|Euphoria]] (BAC = 0.03 to 0.12%).
**Subject may experience an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria.
**They may become more self-confident or daring.
**Their attention span shortens. They may look flushed.
**Their judgment is not as good — they may express the first thought that comes to mind, rather than an appropriate comment for the given situation.
**They have trouble with fine movements, such as writing or signing their name.

*[[Lethargy]] (BAC = 0.09 to 0.25%)
**Subject may become sleepy.
**They have trouble understanding or remembering things, even recent events. They do not react to situations as quickly.
**Their body movements are uncoordinated; they begin to lose their balance easily, stumbling; walking is not stable.
**Their vision becomes blurry. They may have trouble sensing things (hearing, tasting, feeling, etc.).

*[[Confusion]] (BAC = 0.18 to 0.30%)
**Profound confusion — uncertain where they are or what they are doing. Dizziness and staggering occur.
**Heightened emotional state — aggressive, withdrawn, or overly affectionate.  Vision, speech, and awareness are impaired.
**Poor coordination and pain response.  Nausea and vomiting sometimes occurs.

*[[Stupor]] (BAC = 0.25 to 0.40%)
**Movement severely impaired; lapses in and out of consciousness.
**Subjects can slip into a coma; will become completely unaware of surroundings, time passage, and actions.
**Risk of death is very high due to alcohol poisoning and/or [[pulmonary aspiration]] of vomit while unconscious. 

*[[Coma]] (BAC = 0.35 to 0.50%)
**Unconsciousness sets in.
**Reflexes are depressed (i.e., pupils do not respond appropriately to changes in light).
**Breathing is slower and more shallow.  Heart rate drops. Death usually occurs at levels in this range.  

*[[Death]] (BAC more than 0.50%)
**Can cause [[central nervous system]] to fail, resulting in death.

=== Moderate doses ===
Although alcohol is typically thought of purely as a [[depressant]], at low concentrations it can actually stimulate certain areas of the brain. Alcohol sensitises the [[N-methyl-D-aspartate]] ([[NMDA]]) system of the brain, making it more receptive to the neurotransmitter [[glutamate]]. Stimulated areas include the [[cortex (neuroanatomy)|cortex]], [[hippocampus]] and [[nucleus accumbens]], which are responsible for [[thinking]] and pleasure seeking. Another one of alcohol's agreeable effects is body relaxation, possibly caused by [[neurons]] transmitting electrical signals in an [[alpha waves]]-pattern; [[Alpha waves]] are observed (with the aid of [[EEG]]s) when the body is relaxed. Heightened pulses are thought to correspond to higher levels of enjoyment.

Alcohol has also been linked with lowered inhibitions, though it is unclear to what degree this is chemical versus psychological as studies with [[placebo]]s can often duplicate the social effects of alcohol at low to moderate doses.  Some studies have suggested that intoxicated people have much greater control over their behavior than is generally recognized, though they have a reduced ability to correctly evaluate the consequences of their behavior.<ref>http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/Controversies/1048596839.html</ref>  Behavioral changes associated with drunkenness are, to some degree, contextual. A scientific study found that people drinking in a social setting significantly and dramatically altered their behavior immediately after the first sip of alcohol, well before the chemical itself could have filtered through to the nervous system. Likewise, people consuming non-alcoholic drinks often exhibit drunk-like behavior on a par with their alcohol-drinking companions even though their own drinks contained no alcohol whatsoever. {{Fact|date=April 2007}}

Areas of the brain responsible for planning and motor learning are dulled. A related effect, caused by even low levels of alcohol, is the tendency for people to become more animated in speech and movement. This is due to increased [[metabolism]] in areas of the brain associated with movement, such as the ''[[dopaminergic pathways|nigrostriatal pathway]]''. This causes reward systems in the brain to become more active, and combined with reduced understanding of the consequences of their behavior, can induce people to behave in an uncharacteristically loud and cheerful manner.

==== Dehydration ====
Alcohol has been known to mitigate the production of the ADH ([[antidiuretic hormone]]), which is a hormone that acts on the kidney, favoring water reabsorption in the kidneys during filtration. This occurs because alcohol confuses [[osmoreceptor]]s in the [[hypothalamus]], which relay [[osmotic pressure]] information to the [[posterior pituitary]], the site of ADH release. Alcohol makes the osmoreceptors signal as if there was a too low osmotic pressure in the blood, which triggers an inhibition of ADH. Consequently, one's kidneys are no longer able to reabsorb as much water as they should be absorbing, leading to creation of excessive volumes of urine and subsequently overall dehydration.

====Mallenby effect====
The '''Mallenby effect''' is the [[phenomenon]] whereby self-perceptions of the effects of alcohol on the person change between the absorption and the elimination phases of alcohol consumption.

During the absorption phase, individuals compare their perceived state with their condition before consuming alcohol. They tend to over estimate the effects of alcohol.

During the elimination phase, they tend to underestimate their state of alcohol impairment. <ref>Haggin, Daniel J. ''Advanced DUI Investigation'', Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 2005, pp. 77-78.</ref>

=== Excessive doses ===
Excessive doses are generally volumes that cause short- or long-term health effects.

====Slowing====
The effect alcohol has on the [[NMDA receptor]]s, earlier responsible for pleasurable stimulation, turns from a blessing to a curse if too much alcohol is consumed. NMDA receptors start to become unresponsive, slowing thought in the areas of the brain they are responsible for. Contributing to this effect is the activity which alcohol induces in the [[gamma-aminobutyric acid]] system (GABA). The GABA system is known to inhibit activity in the brain.  GABA could also be responsible for the [[Anterograde amnesias|memory impairment]] that many people experience. It has been asserted that GABA signals interfere with the ''registration'' and ''consolidation'' stages of memory formation. As the GABA system is found in the hippocampus, (among other areas in the CNS), which is thought to play a large role in memory formation, this is thought to be possible. 

====Blurred vision====
Blurred vision is another common symptom of drunkenness. Alcohol seems to suppress the metabolism of [[glucose]] in the brain. The [[occipital lobe]], the part of the brain responsible for receiving visual inputs, has been found to become especially impaired, consuming 29% less glucose than it should.  With less glucose metabolism, it is thought that the cells aren't able to process images properly. 

====Vertigo====
Often, after much alcohol has been consumed, it is possible to experience [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], the sense that the room is spinning (sometimes referred to as 'The Spins'). This is associated with abnormal eye movements called [[nystagmus]], specifically ''positional alcohol nystagmus''. 

In this case, alcohol has affected the [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s responsible for [[proprioception|balance]], i.e. the [[vestibular system]] in the [[ear]]s. Balance in the body is monitored principally by two systems: the ''[[semicircular canals]]'', and the ''[[utricle]]'' and ''[[saccule]]'' pair. Inside the semicircular canals there are flexible blobs called ''[[cupula]]''s, which moves when the body moves. Upon bendin of the cupula, [[hair cells]] inside them create [[nerve impulse]]s that travel through the [[vestibulocochlear nerve]] ([[Cranial nerve]] VIII) to the brain. The cupula is surrounded by [[endolymph]], which has the same density.

However, when alcohol gets in to the bloodstream it dilutes it, reducing its density. When this blood reaches the cupula, the cupula becomes less dense. The endolymph surrounding it, on the other hand, is not connected directly to the circulatory system, and keeps the same density. Thus, the cupula becomes less dense than the surrounding fluid and is forced upwards, creating a false impulse just as if the head was rotating in the opposite direction. <ref> [http://www.sportkat.com/index3cf0.html?option=com_content&task=view&id=27&Itemid=25 Sportkat.com - Why can alcohol cause vertigo?]</ref> The abnormal nerve impulses tell the brain that the body is rotating, causing disorientation and making the eyes spin round to compensate. 

====Anterograde amnesia====
Anterograde amnesia, colloquially referred to as "[[Blackout (Alcohol Related Amnesia)|blacking out]]", is another symptom of heavy drinking.

====Ataxia====
Another classic finding of alcohol intoxication is [[ataxia]], in its appendicular, gait, and truncal forms. Appendicular ataxia results in jerky, uncoordinated movements of the limbs, as though each muscle were working independently from the others.  Truncal ataxia results in postural instability; gait instability is manifested as a disorderly, wide-based gait with inconsistent foot positioning.  [[Ataxia]] is responsible for the observation that drunk people are clumsy, sway back and forth, and often fall down.  It is probably due to alcohol's effect on the [[cerebellum]].

==== Hangovers ==== 
{{main|Hangover}}

A common after-effect of ethanol intoxication is the unpleasant sensation known as hangover, which is partly due to the dehydrating effect of ethanol. Hangover symptoms include dry mouth, [[headache]], nausea, and sensitivity to movement, light and noise. These symptoms are partly due to the toxic [[acetaldehyde]] produced from alcohol by [[alcohol dehydrogenase]], and partly due to general dehydration. The dehydration portion of the hangover effect can be mitigated by drinking plenty of water between and after alcoholic drinks. Other components of the hangover are thought to come from the various other chemicals in an alcoholic drink, such as the [[tannin]]s in red [[wine]], and the results of various metabolic processes of alcohol in the body, but few scientific studies have attempted to verify this. Consuming water between drinks and before bed is the best way to prevent or lessen the effects of a hangover.

====Rare effects====
Extreme overdoses can lead to alcohol [[poisoning]] and death due to [[respiration (physiology)|respiratory]] depression.

A rare complication of acute alcohol ingestion is [[Wernicke encephalopathy]], a disorder of [[thiamine]] metabolism.  If not treated with thiamine, Wernicke encephalopathy can progress to [[Korsakoff psychosis]], which is irreversible.

Chronic alcohol ingestion over many years can produce atrophy of the [[vermis]], which is the part of the cerebellum responsible for coordinating [[gait]]; [[vermian atrophy]] produces the classic gait findings of alcohol intoxication even when its victim is not inebriated.

====Other causes====
Severe drunkenness and [[hypoglycemia]] can be mistaken for each other on casual inspection, with potentially serious medical consequences for [[diabetics]]. Measurement of the serum glucose and ethanol concentrations in comatose individuals is routinely performed in the emergency department or by properly-equipped prehospital providers and easily distinguishes the two conditions.

==Pharmacology==
At low or moderate doses, alcohol primarily acts as an unselective [[GABAA receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] [[agonist]]. Alcohol binds to several different subtypes of GABA<sub>A</sub>, but not to others. The main subtypes responsible for the subjective effects of alcohol are the α1β3γ2, α5β3γ2, α4β3δ and α6β3δ subtypes, although other subtypes such as α2β3γ2 and α3β3γ2 are also affected. Activation of these receptors causes most of the effects of alcohol such as relaxation and relief from anxiety, sedation, ataxia and increase in appetite and lowering of inhibitions which can cause a tendency towards violence in some people.<ref>Huang Q, He X, Ma C, Liu R, Yu S, Dayer CA, Wenger GR, McKernan R, Cook JM. Pharmacophore/Receptor Models for GABA<sub>A</sub>/BzR Subtypes (α1β3γ2, α5β3γ2, and α6β3γ2) via a Comprehensive Ligand-Mapping Approach. ''Journal of Medicinal Chemistry'' 2000, (43):71-95.</ref><ref>Platt DM, Duggan A, Spealman RD, Cook JM, Li X, Yin W, Rowlett JK. Contribution of α1GABA<sub>A</sub> and α5GABA<sub>A</sub> Receptor Subtypes to the Discriminative Stimulus Effects of Ethanol in Squirrel Monkeys. ''Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics'' 2005, 313(2):658-667</ref><ref>Duke AN, Platt DM, Cook JM, Huang S, Yin W, Mattingly BA, Rowlett JK. Enhanced sucrose pellet consumption induced by benzodiazepine-type drugs in squirrel monkeys: role of GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor subtypes. ''Psychopharmacology (Berlin)''. 2006 Aug;187(3):321-30.</ref><ref>Wallner M, Hanchar HJ, Olsen RW. Low-dose alcohol actions on α4β3δ GABA<sub>A</sub> receptors are reversed by the behavioral alcohol antagonist Ro15-4513. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A''. 2006 May 30;103(22):8540-5.</ref><ref>Mehta AK, Ticku MK. Ethanol potentiation of GABAergic transmission in cultured spinal cord neurons involves gamma-aminobutyric acidA-gated chloride channels. ''Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics'' 1988, (246):558-564. PMID 2457076</ref><ref>Becker HC, Anton RF. The benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonist Ro15-4513 exacerbates, but does not precipitate, ethanol withdrawal in mice. ''Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour.'' 1989 Jan;32(1):163-7. PMID 2543989</ref><ref>Hanchar HJ, Chutsrinopkun P, Meera P, Supavilai P, Sieghart W, Wallner M, Olsen RW. Ethanol potently and competitively inhibits binding of the alcohol antagonist Ro15-4513 to alpha4/6beta3delta GABA-A receptors. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A''. 2006 May 30;103(22):8546-51.</ref>

At higher dose ranges, other targets also become important. Alcohol at high doses acts as an antagonist of the [[NMDA receptor]], and since the NMDA receptor is involved in learning and memory, this action is thought to be responsible for the "memory blanks" that can occur at extremely high doses of alcohol. People with a family history of alcoholism may exhibit genetic differences in the response of their NMDA glutamate receptors as well as the ratios of GABA-A subtypes in their brain. Alteration of NMDA receptor numbers in chronic alcoholics is likely to be responsible for some of the symptoms seen in [[delerium tremens]] during severe alcohol withdrawal, such as delerium and hallucinations. Other targets such as [[sodium channels]] can also be affected by high doses of alcohol, and alteration in the numbers of these channels in chronic alcoholics is likely to be responsible for the [[convulsions]] that can occur in acute alcohol withdrawal, as well as other effects such as [[cardiac]] [[arrhythmia]]. Also chronic NMDA receptor blockade may produce [[apoptosis]] in [[neurons]] which is likely to one of the factors involved in producing the brain damage seen in long-term alcoholic patients. Other targets that are affected by alcohol include cannabinoid, opioid and dopamine receptors, although it is unclear whether alcohol affects these directly or if they are affected by downstream consequences of the GABA/NMDA effects.<ref>Petrakis IL, Limoncelli D, Gueorguieva R, Jatlow P, Boutros NN, Trevisan L, Gelernter J, Krystal JH. Altered NMDA Glutamate Receptor Antagonist Response in Individuals With a Family Vulnerability to Alcoholism. ''American Journal of Psychiatry.'' 2004, (161):1776–1782.</ref><ref>Nutt DJ. Alcohol alternatives – a goal for psychopharmacology? ''Journal of Psychopharmacology''. 2006, 20(3):318-320.</ref><ref>Qiang M, Denny AD, Ticku MK. Chronic intermittent ethanol treatment selectively alters N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunit surface expression in cultured cortical neurons. ''Molecular Pharmacology''. 2007 Jul;72(1):95-102.</ref><ref>Hendricson AW, Maldve RE, Salinas AG, Theile JW, Zhang TA, Diaz LM, Morrisett RA. Aberrant synaptic activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors underlies ethanol withdrawal hyperexcitability. ''Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics''. 2007 Apr;321(1):60-72.</ref><ref>Dodd PR, Buckley ST, Eckert AL, Foley PF, Innes DJ. Genes and gene expression in the brains of human alcoholics. ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences''. 2006 Aug;1074:104-15.</ref><ref>Sircar R, Sircar D.	Repeated ethanol treatment in adolescent rats alters cortical NMDA receptor. ''Alcohol''. 2006 May;39(1):51-8.</ref><ref>Klein G, Gardiwal A, Schaefer A, Panning B, Breitmeier D. Effect of ethanol on cardiac single sodium channel gating. ''Forensic Science International''. 2007 Sep 13;171(2-3):131-5.</ref><ref>Shiraishi M, Harris RA. Effects of alcohols and anesthetics on recombinant voltage-gated Na+ channels. ''Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics''. 2004 Jun;309(3):987-94.</ref>

==Animal and insect models==
There have been some attempts to use animal and insect models to study the effects of ethanol on humans. Other creatures are not immune to the effects of alcohol:
:Many of us have noticed that bees or yellow jackets cannot fly well after having drunk the juice of overripe fruits or berries; bears have been seen to stagger and fall down after eating fermented honey; and birds often crash or fly haphazardly while intoxicated on ethanol that occurs naturally as free-floating microorganisms convert vegetable carbohydrates to alcohol.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0306452413&id=et0TcXEENUgC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&ots=nkfV8Lolu5&dq=Drug+Policy+and+Human+Nature:+Psychological+Perspectives+On+The+Prevention,+Management,+and+Treatment+of+Illicit+Drug+Abuse&sig=dHDZPG8WbAhn2PEQ4nHaz1mehME ''Drug Policy and Human Nature: Psychological Perspectives On The Prevention, Management, and Treatment of Illicit Drug Abuse''], Warren K. Bickel, Richard J. DeGrandpre, Springer 1996 ISBN 0306452413</ref> 
Birds may have even been killed by excessive consumption of alcohol.<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0005-2086(199004%2F06)34%3A2%3C488%3ASETITW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-G ''Suspected Ethanol Toxicosis in Two Wild Cedar Waxwings''], SD Fitzgerald. JM Sullivan.
RJ Everson. Avian Diseases, Vol. 34, No. 2, 488-490. Apr. - Jun., 1990.</ref>

In [[Sweden]], drunken moose have been observed. The theory is that they had eaten large amounts of overly ripe berries.

As a result, animal and insect models are fairly attractive.  Heberlein et al. conducted studies of fruit fly intoxication at the [[University of California, San Francisco]] in 2004.<ref>http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/4/269</ref>
The brains and nervous systems of bees bear similarities to those of humans, so [[honey bees]] are used in studies of the effect of alcohol.<ref>[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/drunkbee.htm ''Latest Buzz in Research: Intoxicated Honey bees may clue Scientists into Drunken Human Behavior'', The Ohio State Research News, Research Communications, Columbus OH, October 23, 2004.]</ref><ref name=Abramson>[http://www.alcoholism-cer.com/pt/re/alcoholism/abstract.00000374-200008000-00004.htm;jsessionid=FpJc51lhNwKHzlD6K0BnkKp0hgbFGDLVPLvRPVTLCLfJpQJntdnb!-1332733411!-949856145!8091!-1 ''The Development of an Ethanol Model Using Social Insects I: Behavior Studies of the Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.): Neurobiological, Psychosocial, and Developmental Correlates of Drinking''], Charles I. Abramson, Sherril M. Stone, Richard A. Ortez, Alessandra Luccardi, Kyla L. Vann, Kate D. Hanig, Justin Rice, Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research. 24(8):1153-1166, August 2000.</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/10/041025123121.htm ''Intoxicated Honey Bees May Clue Scientists Into Drunken Human Behavior''], Science Daily, October 25, 2004</ref> The value of [[antabuse]] (disulfiram) as a treatment for alcoholism has been tested using a bee model.<ref> [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12785614&dopt=Abstract ''Development of an ethanol model using social insects: II. Effect of Antabuse on consumatory responses and learned behavior of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.).''], Abramson CI, Fellows GW, Browne BL, Lawson A, Ortiz RA., Psychol Rep. 2003 Apr;92(2):365-78.</ref>

Ulrike Heberlein's group at [[University of California, San Francisco]] has used fruit flies as models of human inebriation and even identified genes that seem to be responsible for alcohol tolerance accumulation (believed to be associated with [[veisalgia]], or hangover), and produced genetically engineered strains that do not develop alcohol tolerance<ref>Moore, M. S., Dezazzo, J., Luk, A. Y., Tully, T., Singh, C. M., and Heberlein, U. (1998) Ethanol intoxication in Drosophila: Genetic and pharmacological evidence for regulation by the cAMP pathway. Cell 93, 997-1007</ref><ref>Tecott, L. H. and Heberlein, U. (1998) Y do we drink? Cell 95: 733-735</ref><ref>[http://www.thenakedscientists.com/HTML/Columnists/ruthwilliamscolumn1.htm ''Bar Flies: What our insect relatives can teach us about alcohol tolerance.''], Ruth Williams, Naked Scientist</ref><ref> [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7830 ''‘Hangover gene’ is key to alcohol tolerance''], Gaia Vince, NewScientist.com news service, 22 August 2005</ref>

[[University of Minnesota]] Biology Professor PZ Myers is using [[zebrafish]] to study ethanol [[teratogenesis]] and ethanol [[gametogenesis]].<ref>[http://pharyngula.org/index/weblog/comments/drunken_flies_and_fish/   Pharyngula blog]</ref> A wide range of other animal models have been used,<ref> Grant, K.A. Behavioral animal models in alcohol abuse research. Alcohol Health & Research World 14(3):187-192, 1990.</ref><ref>Samson, H.H. Initiation of ethanol-maintained behavior: A comparison of animal models and their implication to human drinking. In: Thompson, T.; Dews, P.B.; and Barrett, J.E., eds. Neurobehavioral Pharmacology: Volume 6. Advances in Behavioral Pharmacology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987. pp. 221-248.</ref> including primate,<ref>Higley, J.D.; Hasert, M.F.; Suomi, S.J.; & Linnoila, M. Nonhuman primate model of alcohol abuse: Effects of early experience, personality, and stress on alcohol consumption. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 88(16):7261-7265, 1991.</ref>  mouse,<ref>Lister, R.G. The use of a plus-maze to measure anxiety in the mouse. Psychopharmacology 92:180-185, 1987.</ref> and rat models.<ref>Schwarz-Stevens, K.; Samson, H.H.; Tolliver, G.A.; Lumeng, L.; & Li, T.-K. The effects of ethanol initiation procedures on ethanol reinforced behavior in the alcohol-preferring rat. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 15(2):277-285, 1991.</ref>

==References==
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.intox.com/click.asp?linkto=3000 Alcohol and the Human Body]
* [http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004] by the [[World Health Organization]].
*[http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/4/269 ''Molecular Genetic Analysis of Ethanol Intoxication in Drosophila melanogaster''], Ulrike Heberlein, Fred W. Wolf, Adrian Rothenfluh and Douglas J. Guarnieri, Integrative and Comparative Biology 2004 44(4):269-

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