View source for Mechanical ventilation initial ventilator settings

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{{Mechanical ventilation}}
{{CMG}} {{AE}} {{VVS}}
== Initial Ventilator Settings ==
The following are general guidelines that may need to be modified for the individual patient.
=== Tidal Volume, Rate, and Pressures ===
* For adult patients and older children
**Without existing lung disease -- a tidal volume of 12 mL per kg body weight is set to be delivered at a rate of 12 a minute (12-12 rule).
**With [[COPD]] -- a reduced tidal volume of 10 ml/kg is to be delivered 10 times a minute to prevent overinflation and hyperventilation (10-10 rule).
**With [[acute respiratory distress syndrome]] (ARDS) -- an even more reduced tidal volume of 6-8 mL/kg is used with a rate of 10-12/minute. This reduced tidal volume allows for minimal volutrauma but may result in an elevated pCO<sub>2</sub> (due to the relative decreased oxygen delivered) but this elevation does not need to be corrected (termed ''permissive hypercapnia'')
*For infants and younger children
**Without existing lung disease -- a tidal volume of 4-10 ml/kg to be delivered at a rate of 30-35 breaths per minute
**With [[RDS]] -- decrease tidal volume and increase respiratory rate sufficient to maintain pCO<sub>2</sub> between 45-55.  Allowing higher pCO<sub>2</sub> (sometimes called permissive hypercapnia) may help prevent ventilator induced lung injury

As the amount of tidal volume increases, the pressure required to administer that volume is increased. This pressure is known as the ''peak airway pressure''. If the peak airway pressure is persistently above 45 cmH<sub>2</sub>O for adults, the risk of barotrauma is increased (''see below'') and efforts should be made to try to reduce the peak airway pressure.  In infants and children it is unclear what level of peak pressure may cause damage.  In general, keeping peak pressures below 30 is desirable.

Monitoring for barotrauma can also involve measuring the ''plateau pressure'', which is the pressure ''after'' the delivery of the tidal volume but ''before'' the patient is allowed to exhale. Normal breathing pattern involves inspiration, then expiration. The ventilator is programmed so that after delivery of the tidal volume (inspiration), the patient is not allowed to exhale for a half a second. Therefore, pressure must be maintained in order to prevent exhalation, and this pressure is the plateau pressure. Barotrauma is minimized when the plateau pressure is maintained < 30-35 cmH<sub>2</sub>O.

=== Sighs === 
An adult patient breathing spontaneously will usually sigh about 6-8 times/hr to prevent microatelectasis, and this has led some to propose that ventilators should deliver 1.5-2 times the amount of the preset tidal volume 6-8 times/hr to account for the sighs. However, such high quantity of volume delivery requires very high peak pressure that predisposes to barotrauma. Currently, accounting for sighs is not recommended if the patient is receiving 10-12 mL/kg or is on PEEP. If the tidal volume used is lower, the sigh adjustment can be used, as long as the peak and plateau pressures are acceptable.

Sighs are not generally used with ventilation of infants and young children.
=== Initial FiO<sub>2</sub> ===

Because the mechanical ventilator is responsible for assisting in a patient's breathing, it must then also be able to deliver an adequate amount of oxygen in each breath. The FiO<sub>2</sub> stands for ''fraction of inspired oxygen'', which means the percent of oxygen in each breath that is inspired. (Note that normal room air has ~21% oxygen content). In adult patients who can tolerate higher levels of oxygen for a period of time, the initial FiO<sub>2</sub> may be set at 100% until arterial blood gases can document adequate oxygenation. An FiO<sub>2</sub> of 100% for an extended period of time can be dangerous, but it can protect against hypoxemia from unexpected intubation problems. For infants, and especially in premature infants, avoiding high levels of FiO<sub>2</sub> (>60%) is important.
=== Positive End-Expiratory Pressure (PEEP) ===
PEEP is an adjuvunt to the mode ventilation used in cases where the FRC is reduced. At the end of expiration, the PEEP exerts pressure to oppose passive emptying of the lung and to keep the airway pressure above the atmospheric pressure. The presence of PEEP opens up collapse or unstable alveoli and increases the FRC and surface area for gas exchange, thus reducing the size of the shunt. Thus, if a large shunt is found to exist based on the estimation from 100% FiO<sub>2</sub> (''see above''), then PEEP can be considered and the FiO<sub>2</sub> can be lowered (< 60%) to still maintain an adequate PaO<sub>2</sub>, thus reducing the risk of oxygen toxicity. 

In addition to treating a shunt, PEEP is also therapeutic in decreasing the work of breathing. In pulmonary physiology, [[elastance|compliance]] is a measure of the "stiffness" of the lung and chest wall. The mathematical formula for compliance (C) = change in volume / change in pressure. Therefore, a higher compliance means that only small increases in pressure can lead to large increases in volume, which means the work of breathing is reduced. As the FRC increases with PEEP, the compliance also increases, since the partially inflated lung takes less energy to inflate further.

'''Indications'''. PEEP is a cardiodepressant and can cause severe hemodynamic consequences through decreasing venous return to the right heart and decreasing right ventricular. As such, it should be judiciously used and is indicated in two circumstances. 
* If a PaO<sub>2</sub> of 60 mmHg cannot be achieved with a FiO<sub>2</sub> of 60%
* If the initial shunt estimation is greater than 25%
If used, PEEP is usually set with the minimal positive pressure to maintain an adequate PaO<sub>2</sub> with a safe FiO<sub>2</sub>. As PEEP increase intrathoracic pressure, there can be a resulting decrease in venous return and decrease in cardiac output. A PEEP of less than 10 cmH<sub>2</sub>O is usually safe if intravascular volume depletion is absent. 
Older literature recommended routine placement of a [[Swan-Ganz catheter]] if the amount of PEEP used is greater than 10 cmH<sub>2</sub> for hemodynamic monitoring. More recent literature has failed to find outcome benefits with routine PA catheterization when compared to simple [[central venous pressure]] monitoring.<ref>Shah, MR et al Impact of the pulmonary artery catheter in critically ill patients: meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. JAMA. 2005 [[October 5]];294(13):1664-70. 
PMID: 16204666</ref> If cardiac output measurement is required, minimally invasive techniques, such as esophageal doppler monitoring or arterial waveform contour monitoring may be sufficient alternatives.<ref> Vallee F, et al. Stroke output variations calculated by esophageal Doppler is a reliable predictor of fluid response. Intensive Care Med. 2005 Oct;31(10):1388-93. Epub 2005 [[August 19]].
PMID: 16132887</ref><ref>Uchino S, et al. Pulmonary artery catheter versus pulse contour analysis: a prospective epidemiological study. Crit Care. 2006 [[December 14]];10(6):R174 [Epub ahead of print]
PMID: 17169160</ref> PEEP should be withdrawn from a patient until adequate PaO<sub>2</sub> can be maintained with a FiO<sub>2</sub> < 40%. When withdrawing, it is decreased through 1-2 cmH<sub>2</sub>O decrements while monitoring hemoglobin-oxygen saturations. Any unacceptable hemoglobin-oxygen saturation should prompt reinstitution of the last PEEP level that maintained good saturation.
=== Positioning ===
Prone (face down) positioning has been used in patients with [[acute respiratory distress syndrome|ARDS]] and severe [[hypoxemia]]. It improves FRC, drainage of secretions, and [[Ventilation/perfusion ratio|ventilation-perfusion]] matching (efficiency of gas exchange). It may improve oxygenation in > 50% of patients, but no survival benefit has been documented.
=== Sedation ===
Most patients receive sedation through a continuous infusion or scheduled dosing to help with anxiety or psychological stress. Daily interruption of sedation is commonly helpful to the patient for reorientation and appropriate weaning. 
=== Prophylaxis ===
* To protect against ventilator-associated pneumonia, patients' bed is often elevated to about 30° and [[Histamine-2 receptor blocker]] or [[proton pump inhibitors]] may be used.
* [[Deep vein thrombosis]] prophylaxis with [[heparin]] or sequential compression device is important in older children and adults.

==References==
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[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:Intensive care medicine]]
[[Category:Prehospital care]]
[[Category:Pulmonology]]
[[Category:Needs overview]]