View source for Bisphenol A

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}
{{chembox
| Verifiedfields = changed
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 407465471
|   Name = Bisphenol&nbsp;A
|   ImageFile1_Ref = {{chemboximage|correct|??}}
| ImageFile1 = Bisphenol A.svg
|   ImageSize1 = 240px
|   ImageFile2 = Bisphenol A.png
|   ImageSize2 = 180px
|   ImageName = Bisphenol A
|   IUPACName = 4,4'-(propane-2,2-diyl)diphenol
|   OtherNames = BPA, ''p'',''p'''-isopropylidenebisphenol,<br /> 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane.
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
|   SMILES = Oc1ccc(cc1)C(c2ccc(O)cc2)(C)C
|   UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = MLT3645I99
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|changed|kegg}}
| KEGG = C13624
| InChI = 1/C15H16O2/c1-15(2,11-3-7-13(16)8-4-11)12-5-9-14(17)10-6-12/h3-10,16-17H,1-2H3
| InChIKey = IISBACLAFKSPIT-UHFFFAOYAI
| SMILES1 = CC(C)(c1ccc(cc1)O)c2ccc(cc2)O
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 418971
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C15H16O2/c1-15(2,11-3-7-13(16)8-4-11)12-5-9-14(17)10-6-12/h3-10,16-17H,1-2H3
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = IISBACLAFKSPIT-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| CASNo = 80-05-7
|   CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
|   PubChem = 6623
|   EINECS = 201-245-8
|   ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 6371
|   RTECS = SL6300000
|   UNNumber = 2430
  }}
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
|   C=15|H=16|O=2
|   Appearance = White to light brown flakes or powder
|   Density = 1.20 g/cm³, solid
|   Solubility = 120–300 ppm (at 21.5 °C)
|   MeltingPt = 158 to 159 °C (430 K)
|   BoilingPt = 220 °C (493 K) / 4 mmHg
|   Viscosity =
}}
| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure
|   CrystalStruct =
|   Dipole =
  }}
| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards
|   ExternalMSDS =
|   EUIndex =
|   EUClass =
|   NFPA-H = 3
|   NFPA-F = 0
|   NFPA-R = 0
|   RPhrases = {{R36}}, {{R37}}, {{R38}}, {{R43}}
|   SPhrases = {{S24}}, {{S26}}, {{S37}}
|   FlashPt = 227 °C
|   autoignition = 600 °C
  }}
| Section8 = {{Chembox Related
|   Function = [[?]]
|   OtherFunctn =
|   OtherCpds = [[phenols]]<br />[[Bisphenol S]]
  }}
}}

'''Bisphenol&nbsp;A''', commonly abbreviated as '''BPA''', is an [[organic compound]] with two [[phenol]] [[functional group]]s. It is used to make [[polycarbonate]] plastic and [[epoxy resins]], along with other applications.

Known to be [[estrogenic]] since the mid 1930s, concerns about the use of bisphenol&nbsp;A in consumer products were regularly reported in the news media in 2008 after several governments issued reports questioning its safety, prompting some retailers to remove products containing it from their shelves. A 2010 report from the United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) raised further concerns regarding exposure of fetuses, infants and young children.<ref name="U.S. Food and Drug Administration">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm197739.htm|title=Update on Bisphenol A for Use in Food Contact Applications: January 2010 |date=15 January 2010 |publisher=[[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]]|accessdate=15 January 2010}}</ref> In September 2010, Canada became the first country to declare BPA as a toxic substance.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p2/2010/2010-10-13/pdf/g2-14421.pdf |journal=[[Canada Gazette]] Part II |volume=144 |issue=21 |date=13 October 2010 |pages=1806–18 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/canada-first-to-declare-bisphenol-a-toxic/article1755272/ |title=Canada first to declare bisphenol A toxic |author=Martin Mittelstaedt |work=The Globe and Mail |location=Canada  |date=13 October 2010}}</ref> In the [[European Union]] and Canada, BPA use is banned in baby bottles.<ref name="rban2011"/>

==Production==
World production capacity of this compound was 1&nbsp;million tonnes in the 1980s,<ref name = Fiege/> and more than 2.2&nbsp;million tonnes in 2009.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE65L6JN20100622?loomia_ow=t0:s0:a49:g43:r3:c0.084942:b35124310:z0|title=Experts demand European action on plastics chemical|publisher=Reuters | date=22 June 2010}}</ref>  In 2003, U.S. consumption was 856,000 tonnes, 72% of which was used to make polycarbonate plastic and 21% going into epoxy resins.<ref name="CERHR"/> In the US less than 5% of the BPA produced is used in food contact applications.<ref name="epa-action-plan"/>

Bisphenol&nbsp;A was first synthesized by the [[Russia]]n [[chemist]] [[A.P. Dianin]] in 1891.<ref name=dianin>{{Cite journal | author=Dianin | title = Zhurnal russkogo fiziko-khimicheskogo obshchestva | volume = 23 | year = 1891 | pages = &nbsp;492&ndash;}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | first = Theodor | last = Zincke | authorlink = Theodor Zincke | title = Ueber die Einwirkung von Brom und von Chlor auf Phenole: Substitutionsprodukte, Pseudobromide und Pseudochloride | journal=[[Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie]] | year = 1905 | pages = 75–99 | doi = 10.1002/jlac.19053430106 | volume = 343}}</ref> This compound is synthesized by the [[condensation reaction|condensation]] of [[acetone]] (hence the suffix A in the name)<ref>{{Cite book | last=Uglea | first=Constantin V. | coauthors=Ioan I. Negulescu | title=Synthesis and Characterization of Oligomers | year=1991 | publisher=[[CRC Press]] | page=103 | isbn=0849349540}}</ref> with two [[Equivalent (chemistry)|equivalents]] of [[phenol]]. The reaction is [[catalysis|catalyzed]] by a strong acid, such as [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) or a [[Sodium polystyrene sulfonate|sulfonated polystyrene resin]]. Industrially, a large excess of phenol is used to ensure full condensation; the product mixture of the [[cumene process]] (acetone and phenol) may also be used as starting material:<ref name=Fiege/>

:[[File:Synthesis Bisphenol A.svg|frameless|upright=2.5|Synthesis of bisphenol A from phenol and acetone]]

A large number of [[ketone]]s undergo analogous condensation reactions. Commercial production of BPA requires distillation – either extraction of BPA from many resinous byproducts under [[high vacuum]], or solvent-based extraction using additional phenol followed by distillation.<ref name=Fiege>{{Cite book | first = Helmut | last = Fiege | coauthors = Heinz-Werner Voges, Toshikazu Hamamoto, Sumio Umemura, Tadao Iwata, Hisaya Miki, Yasuhiro Fujita, Hans-Josef Buysch, Dorothea Garbe, Wilfried Paulus | title = Phenol Derivatives | series = Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry | publisher=Wiley-VCH | location = Weinheim | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1002/14356007.a19_313}}</ref>

==Use==
{{further|[[Polycarbonate]]}}
Bisphenol&nbsp;A is used primarily to make plastics, and products containing bisphenol&nbsp;A-based plastics have been in commerce use since 1957.<ref name="infosheet">{{Cite web | title=Bisphenol A Information Sheet | date=October 2002 | publisher=Bisphenol A Global Industry Group | url=http://www.bisphenol-a.org/pdf/DiscoveryandUseOctober2002.pdf | accessdate=7 December 2010 }}</ref> At least 8&nbsp;billion pounds of BPA are used by manufacturers yearly.<ref name="USNews3">{{Cite news|url=http://health.usnews.com/health-news/family-health/heart/articles/2009/06/10/studies-report-more-harmful-effects-from-bpa.html|title=Studies Report More Harmful Effects From BPA|date=10 June 2009|work=[[U.S. News & World Report]]|accessdate=28 October 2010}}</ref> It is a key [[monomer]] in production of [[epoxy]] resins<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.californiaprogressreport.com/2009/07/committee_succe.html|title=Lawmakers to press for BPA regulation|last=Replogle|first=Jill|date=17 July 2009|publisher=California Progress Report|accessdate=2 August 2009}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thestar.com/article/415296|title=Ridding life of bisphenol A a challenge|last=Ubelacker  |first=Sheryl |date=16 April 2008|work=Toronto Star |accessdate=2 August 2009}}</ref> and in the most common form of [[polycarbonate]] [[plastic]].<ref name=Fiege/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kroschwitz|first=Jacqueline I.|title=Kirk-Othmer encyclopedia of chemical technology|edition=5|volume=5|pages=8|isbn=0471526959}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.alliancepoly.com/polycarbonate.asp|title=Polycarbonate (PC) Polymer Resin|publisher=Alliance Polymers, Inc|accessdate=2 August 2009}}</ref> The overall reaction to give polycarbonate can be written:

:[[File:Polycarbonatsynthese.svg|500px]]

Polycarbonate plastic, which is clear and nearly shatter-proof, is used to make a variety of common products including baby and water bottles, sports equipment, medical and dental devices, [[dental fillings]] and sealants, eyeglass lenses, CDs and DVDs, and household electronics.<ref name="CERHR">{{Cite news | title = CERHR Expert Panel Report for Bisphenol A | url = http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/bisphenol/BPAFinalEPVF112607.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 18 April 2008 |date=26 November 2007| author=National Toxicology Program, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080218195117/http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/bisphenol/BPAFinalEPVF112607.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 18 February 2008}}</ref> BPA is also used in the synthesis of [[polysulfone]]s and [[polyether]] [[ketones]], as an [[antioxidant]] in some [[plasticizer]]s, and as a [[polymerization]] inhibitor in [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]]. Epoxy resins containing bisphenol&nbsp;A are used as coatings on the inside of almost all food and [[beverage can]]s,<ref name="C&ENews">{{Cite journal|last=Erickson|first=Britt E.|date=2 June 2008|title=Bisphenol A under scrutiny|journal=Chemical and Engineering News|publisher=American Chemical Society|volume=86|issue=22|pages=36–39|url=http://pubs.acs.org/isubscribe/journals/cen/86/i22/html/8622gov1.html}}</ref> however, due to BPA health concerns, in Japan epoxy coating was mostly replaced by [[PET film (biaxially oriented)|PET film]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.foodnavigator.com/Financial-Industry/Consumers-fear-the-packaging-a-BPA-alternative-is-needed-now|title=Consumers fear the packaging - a BPA alternative is needed now|last=Byrne|first=Jane|date=22 September 2008|accessdate=5 January 2010}}</ref> Bisphenol&nbsp;A is also a precursor to the [[flame retardant]] [[tetrabromobisphenol A|tetrabromobisphenol&nbsp;A]], and was formerly used as a [[fungicide]].<ref>[http://pesticideinfo.org/Detail_Chemical.jsp?Rec_Id=PC33756 Pesticideinfo.org: Bisphenol A]</ref> Bisphenol&nbsp;A is a preferred color developer in [[carbonless copy paper]] and [[thermal paper]],<ref>{{Cite patent|US|6562755}}</ref> with the most common public exposure coming from some<ref>{{Cite web|title=More evidence that BPA laces store receipts|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/61490/title/Science_%2B_the_Public__More_evidence_that_BPA_laces_store_receipts|quote=Bill Van Den Brandt of Appleton Papers says that the receipts paper made by his company (which bills itself as the nation's leading producer of carbonless and thermal papers) is BPA-free.|date=27 July 2001|accessdate=3 August 2010|author=Raloff, Janet|publisher=Science News}}</ref> thermal [[point of sale]] receipt paper.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Concerned about BPA: Check your receipts|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48084/title/Science_%2B_the_Public__Concerned_about_BPA_Check_your_receipts|date=7 October 2009|accessdate=3 August 2010|author=Raloff, Janet|publisher=Science News}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite doi|10.1016/S0045-6535(00)00507-5}}</ref> BPA-based products are also used in [[Foundry|foundry castings]] and for lining water pipes.<ref name="epa-action-plan">{{Cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/bpa_action_plan.pdf|title=Bisphenol A Action Plan |date=29 March 2010|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref>

===Identification in plastics===
{{Main|Resin identification code}}
[[Image:Plastic-recyc-07.svg|thumb|100px|Some [[Plastic_identification_code#Plastic_identification_code|type 7]] plastics may leak bisphenol&nbsp;A|left]]
[[Image:Plastic-recyc-03.svg|thumb|100px|Flexible [[Plastic_identification_code#Plastic_identification_code|type 3]] plastics may leak bisphenol&nbsp;A|right]]

"In general, plastics that are marked with recycle codes 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 are very unlikely to contain BPA. Some, but not all, plastics that are marked with recycle codes 3 or 7 may be made with BPA."<ref>http://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/</ref>

There are [[Plastic_identification_code#Plastic_identification_code|seven classes of plastics]] used in packaging applications. Type 7 is the catch-all "other" class, and some type 7 plastics, such as [[polycarbonate]] (sometimes identified with the letters "PC" near the [[recycling symbol]]) and epoxy resins, are made from bisphenol&nbsp;A monomer.<ref name=Fiege/><!--When such plastics are exposed to hot liquids, bisphenol&nbsp;A leaks out 55 times faster than it does under normal conditions.{{Clarify|date=March 2009}}--><!-- Unit incomplete.  Nanogrammes per hour per how much of the plastic?  That much per mg would be a lot, per tonne not much. Also need to know what "hot" means, and what "normal conditions" means.--><ref name="sciam2008">{{Cite journal|author=Biello D | title=Plastic (not) fantastic: Food containers leach a potentially harmful chemical | journal=Scientific American | volume=2 | date=19 February 2008 | url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=plastic-not-fantastic-with-bisphenol-a | accessdate=9 April 2008}}</ref>

Type 3 ([[PVC]]) can also contain bisphenol&nbsp;A as an antioxidant in [[plasticizers]].<ref name=Fiege/> This is particularly true for "flexible PVC", but not true for PVC pipes.
{{Clear}}

==Health effects==
Bisphenol&nbsp;A is an [[endocrine disruptor]], which can mimic the body's own [[hormones]] and may lead to negative health effects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gore|first=Andrea C. |title=Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: From Basic Research to Clinical Practice|publisher=Humana Press|date=8 June 2007|series=Contemporary Endocrinology|isbn=978-1588298300}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=O’Connor |first1=JC |last2=Chapin |first2=RE | title = Critical evaluation of observed adverse effects of endocrine active substances on reproduction and development, the immune system, and the nervous system | journal=Pure Appl. Chem | volume = 75 | issue = 11–12 | pages = 2099–2123 |year=2003 | url = http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/2003/pdf/7511x2099.pdf| format = Full Article | accessdate = 28 February 2007 | doi = 10.1351/pac200375112099}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Okada H, Tokunaga T, Liu X, Takayanagi S, Matsushima A, Shimohigashi Y |title=Direct evidence revealing structural elements essential for the high binding ability of bisphenol A to human estrogen-related receptor-gamma |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=32–8 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18197296 |pmc=2199305 |doi=10.1289/ehp.10587 |url=}}</ref><ref name=JAMAVS>{{Cite journal |author=vom Saal FS, Myers JP |title=Bisphenol A and Risk of Metabolic Disorders |journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association|JAMA]] |volume= 300|issue=  11|pages= 1353–5|year=2008 |pmid= 18799451|doi=10.1001/jama.300.11.1353 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/300.11.1353}}</ref> Early development appears to be the period of greatest sensitivity to its effects,<ref name=HealthCanada>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/substances/ese/eng/challenge/batch2/batch2_80-05-7.cfm Draft Screening Assessment for The Challenge Phenol, 4,4' -(1-methylethylidene)bis- (Bisphenol A)Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number 80-05-7.] [[Health Canada]], 2008.</ref> and some studies have linked prenatal exposure to later neurological difficulties. Regulatory bodies have determined safety levels for humans, but those safety levels are currently being questioned or under review as a result of new scientific studies.<ref name=EHP>{{Cite journal |author=Ginsberg G, Rice DC |title=Does Rapid Metabolism Ensure Negligible Risk from Bisphenol A?|journal=[[Environmental Health Perspectives|EPH]] |volume= 117|issue=11 |pages=1639–1643|year=2009 |doi=10.1289/ehp.0901010 |url=http://www.ehponline.org/members/2009/0901010/0901010.html |pmid=20049111 |pmc=2801165}}</ref><ref>{{Cite pmid|19931376}}</ref> A 2011 study that investigated the number of chemicals to which pregnant women in the U.S. are exposed found BPA in 96% of women.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/01/110114081653.htm</ref>

In 2009, [[The Endocrine Society]] released a statement expressing concern over current human exposure to BPA.<ref>[http://www.endocrinetoday.com/view.aspx?rid=40865 Endocrine Society released scientific statement on endocrine-disrupting chemicals]</ref>

===Expert panel conclusions===
In 2007, a consensus statement by 38 experts on bisphenol&nbsp;A concluded that average levels in people are above those that cause harm to many animals in laboratory experiments.  However, they noted that while BPA is not persistent in the environment or in humans, [[biomonitoring]] surveys indicate that exposure is continuous, which is problematic because acute animal exposure studies are used to estimate daily human exposure to BPA, and  no studies that had examined BPA [[pharmacokinetics]] in animal models had followed continuous low level exposures. They added that measurement of BPA levels in serum and other body fluids suggests that either BPA intake is much higher than accounted for, or that BPA can bioaccumulate in some conditions such as pregnancy, or both.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=vom Saal FS, Akingbemi BT, Belcher SM, ''et al'' |title=Chapel Hill bisphenol A expert panel consensus statement: integration of mechanisms, effects in animals and potential to impact human health at current levels of exposure |journal=Reprod. Toxicol. |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=131–8 |year=2007 |pmid=17768031 |pmc=2967230 |doi=10.1016/j.reprotox.2007.07.005 |url=}}</ref>  A 2011 study, the first to examine BPA in a continuous low level exposure throughout the day, did find an increased absorption and accumulation of BPA in the blood of mice.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110606075708.htm</ref>

In 2007 it was reported that among government-funded BPA experiments on lab animals and tissues, 153 found adverse effects and 14 did not, whereas all 13 studies funded by chemical corporations reported no harm. The studies indicating harm reported a variety of deleterious effects in rodent offspring exposed in the womb: abnormal weight gain, insulin resistance, prostate cancer, and excessive mammary gland development.<ref>http://pubs.acs.org/cen/government/85/8516gov2.html</ref>

A panel convened by the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] in 2007 determined that there was "some concern" about BPA's effects on fetal and infant brain development and behavior.<ref name="CERHR"/> The concern over the effect of BPA on infants was also heightened by the fact that infants and children are estimated to have the highest daily intake of BPA.<ref>[http://www.center4research.org/2010/04/are-bisphenol-a-bpa-plastic-products-safe-for-infants-and-children/ Are BPA Products Safe for Infants and Children?], National Research Center for Women and Families Website.</ref> A 2008 report by the U.S. [[National Toxicology Program]] (NTP) later agreed with the panel, expressing "some concern for effects on the brain, behavior, and prostate gland in fetuses, infants, and children at current human exposures to bisphenol&nbsp;A," and "''minimal'' concern for effects on the mammary gland and an earlier age for puberty for females in fetuses, infants, and children at current human exposures to bisphenol&nbsp;A." The NTP had "''negligible'' concern that exposure of pregnant women to bisphenol&nbsp;A will result in fetal or neonatal mortality, birth defects, or reduced birth weight and growth in their offspring."<ref name=NTP08>[http://www.niehs.nih.gov/news/media/questions/sya-bpa.cfm Since you asked - Bisphenol A: Questions and Answers about the Draft National Toxicology Program Brief on Bisphenol A], National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences website.</ref>

===Obesity===
A 2008 review has concluded that obesity may be increased as a function of BPA exposure, which "merits concern among scientists and public health officials".<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1097/MED.0b013e32830ce95c}}</ref> A 2009 review of available studies has concluded that "perinatal BPA exposure acts to exert persistent effects on body weight and adiposity".<ref>{{Cite pmid|19433248}}</ref> Another 2009 review has concluded that "Eliminating exposures to (BPA) and improving nutrition during development offer the potential for reducing obesity and associated diseases".<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1016/j.mce.2009.02.025}}</ref> Other reviews have come with similar conclusions.<ref>{{Cite pmid|19433252}}</ref><ref>{{Cite pmid|19433244}}</ref> A later study on rats has suggested that perinatal exposure to drinking water containing 1&nbsp;mg/L of BPA increased adipogenesis in females at weaning.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1289/ehp.11342}}</ref> Other study suggested that larger size-for-age was due to a faster growth rate rather than obesity<ref>{{Cite pmid|20351315}}</ref>

===Neurological issues===
A panel convened by the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] determined that there was "some concern" about BPA's effects on fetal and infant brain development and behavior.<ref name="CERHR"/> A 2008 report by the U.S. [[National Toxicology Program]] (NTP) later agreed with the panel, expressing "some concern for effects on the brain".<ref name=NTP08/> In January 2010 the FDA expressed the same level of concern.

A 2007 review has concluded that BPA, like other xenoestrogens, should be considered as a player within the nervous system that can regulate or alter its functions through multiple pathways.<ref>{{Cite pmid|17868795}}</ref> A 2007 review has concluded that low doses of BPA during development have persistent effects on brain structure, function and behavior in rats and mice.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1016/j.reprotox.2007.06.004}}</ref> A 2008 review concluded that low-dose BPA maternal exposure causes long-term consequences at the level of neurobehavioral development in mice.<ref>{{Cite pmid|18949834}}</ref> A 2008 review has concluded that neonatal exposure to  Bisphenol-A (BPA) can affect sexually dimorphic brain morphology and neuronal adult phenotypes in mice.<ref>{{Cite pmid|17822772}}</ref> A 2008 review has concluded that BPA altered [[long-term potentiation]] in the [[hippocampus]] and even nanomolar dosage could induce significant effects on memory processes.<ref>{{Cite pmid|17822775}}</ref> A 2009 review raised concerns about BPA effect on [[anteroventral periventricular nucleus]].<ref>10.1016/j.yfrne.2008.02.002</ref>

A 2008 study by the [[Yale School of Medicine]] demonstrated that adverse neurological effects occur in [[primates|non-human primates]] regularly exposed to bisphenol&nbsp;A at levels equal to the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]'s (EPA) maximum safe dose of 50&nbsp;µg/kg/day.<ref name="pmid18768812">{{Cite journal |author=Leranth C, Hajszan T, Szigeti-Buck K, Bober J, Maclusky NJ |title=Bisphenol A prevents the synaptogenic response to estradiol in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of ovariectomized nonhuman primates |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume= 105|issue= 37|pages= 14187|year=2008 |month=September |pmid=18768812 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0806139105 |url= |pmc=2544599}}</ref><ref name="Layton2">{{Cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/03/AR2008090303397.html?hpid=topnews|title=Chemical in Plastic Is Connected to Health Problems in Monkeys|last=Layton|first=Lindsey|date=4 September 2008|work=Washington Post |pages=A02|accessdate=6 September 2008}}</ref>  This research found a connection between BPA and interference with brain cell connections vital to memory, learning and mood.

A 2010 study with rats prenatally exposed to 40 microg/kg bw BPA has concluded that [[corticosterone]] and its actions in the brain are sensitive to the programming effects of BPA.<ref>{{Cite pmid|20219646}}</ref>

====Disruption of the dopaminergic system====
A 2005 review concluded that prenatal and neonatal exposure to BPA in mice can potentiate the central [[dopamine#Functions in the brain|dopaminergic systems]], resulting in the supersensitivity to the drugs-of-abuse-induced reward effects and hyperlocomotion.<ref>{{Cite pmid|16045194}}</ref>

A 2008 review has concluded that BPA mimics estrogenic activity and impacts various dopaminergic processes to enhance mesolimbic dopamine activity resulting in hyperactivity, attention deficits, and a heightened sensitivity to drugs of abuse.<ref>{{Cite pmid|18555207}}</ref>

A 2009 study on rats has concluded that prenatal and neonatal exposure to low-dose BPA causes deficits in development at dorsolateral [[striatum]] via altering the function of dopaminergic receptors.<ref>{{Cite pmid|19162132}}</ref> Another 2009 study has found associated changes in the dopaminergic system.<ref name="Tanida">{{Cite pmid|19481886}}</ref>

===Thyroid function===
A 2007 review has concluded that bisphenol-A has been shown to bind to thyroid hormone receptor and perhaps have selective effects on its functions.<ref>{{Cite pmid|17956155}}</ref>

A 2009 review about environmental chemicals and thyroid function, raised concerns about BPA effects on [[triiodothyronine]] and concluded that "available evidence suggests that governing agencies need to regulate the use of thyroid-disrupting chemicals, particularly as such uses relate exposures of pregnant women, neonates and small children to the agents".<ref>{{Cite pmid|19625957}}</ref>

A 2009 review summarized BPA adverse effects on thyroid hormone action.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1248/jhs.55.147}}</ref>

===Cancer research===
According to the WHO's INFOSAN, "animal studies have not provided convincing evidence of risk of cancer from BPA exposure."<ref name="infosan">{{Cite web|url=http://www.who.int/entity/foodsafety/publications/fs_management/No_05_Bisphenol_A_Nov09_en.pdf|title=BISPHENOL A (BPA) - Current state of knowledge and  future actions by WHO and FAO|date=27 November 2009|accessdate=2 December 2009}}</ref>

Neither the U.S. [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]]<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0356.htm U.S.EPA, IRIS: Bisphenol A]</ref> nor the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]]<ref>[http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/ListagentsCASnos.pdf Agents Reviewed by the Monographs Volumes 1–99]</ref> has evaluated bisphenol&nbsp;A for possible carcinogenic activity.

A 2010 review at Tufts University Medical School concluded that Bisphenol&nbsp;A may increase cancer risk.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1038/nrendo.2010.87}}</ref>

====Breast cancer====
{{See|Risk factors of breast cancer#Bisphenol A}}
A 2008 review has concluded that "perinatal exposure to (...) low doses of (..) BPA, alters breast development and increases breast cancer risk".<ref>{{Cite doi|10.2533/chimia.2008.406}}</ref> Another 2008 review concluded that "animal experiments and epidemiological data strengthen the hypothesis that fetal exposure to xenoestrogens may be an underlying cause of the increased incidence of breast cancer observed over the last 50 years".<ref>{{Cite pmid|18226065}}</ref> <!-- not a good source A 2009 review, funded by the "Breast Cancer Fund", has recommended "a federal ban on the manufacture, distribution and sale of consumer products containing bisphenol&nbsp;A".<ref>{{Cite pmid|19267127}}</ref> -->

A 2009 in vitro study has concluded that BPA is able to induce neoplastic transformation in human breast epithelial cells.<ref>{{Cite pmid|19933552}}</ref> Another 2009 study concluded that maternal oral exposure to low concentrations of BPA during lactation increases mammary carcinogenesis in a rodent model.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1289/ehp.11751}}</ref>

A 2010 study with the mammary glands of the offspring of pregnant rats treated orally with 0, 25 or 250&nbsp;µg BPA/kg body weight has found that key proteins involved in signaling pathways such as cellular proliferation were regulated at the protein level by BPA.<ref>{{Cite pmid|20219716}}</ref>

A 2010 study has found that BPA may reduce sensitivity to chemotherapy treatment of specific tumors.<ref>{{Cite pmid|19796866}}</ref>

====Neuroblastoma====
In vitro studies have suggested that BPA can promote the growth of [[neuroblastoma]] cells.<ref>{{Cite pmid|19361625}}</ref><ref>{{Cite doi|10.1016/j.etap.2007.05.003}}</ref> A 2010 in vitro study has concluded that BPA potently promote invasion and [[metastasis]] of neuroblastoma cells through overexpression of [[MMP-2]] and [[MMP-9]] as well as downregulation of [[TIMP2]].<ref>{{Cite pmid|19956873}}</ref>

====Prostate development and cancer====
A 1997 study in mice has found that neonatal BPA exposure of 2 μg/kg increased adult prostate weight.<ref>{{Cite pmid|9074884}}</ref> A 2005 study in mice has found that neonatal BPA exposure at 10 μg/kg disrupted the development of the fetal mouse prostate.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1073/pnas.0502544102}}</ref>
A 2006 study in rats has shown that neonatal bisphenol&nbsp;A exposure at 10 μg/kg levels increases prostate gland susceptibility to adult-onset precancerous lesions and hormonal carcinogenesis.<ref>{{Cite pmid|16740699}}</ref>
A 2007 in vitro study has found that BPA within the range of concentrations currently measured in human serum is associated with permanently increase in prostate size.<ref>{{Cite pmid|17589598}}</ref> A 2009 study has found that newborn rats exposed to a low-dose of BPA (10&nbsp;µg/kg) increased prostate cancer susceptibility when adults.<ref>{{Cite doi| 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.12.023}}</ref>

====DNA methylation====
Bisphenol&nbsp;A suppresses [[DNA methylation]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bagchi|first=Debasis|title=Genomics, Proteomics and Metabolomics in Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods  |year=2010|publisher=Wiley|page=319|isbn=0813814022}}</ref> which is linked to [[epigenetic]] changes.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1073/pnas.0703739104}}</ref>

===Reproductive system and sexual behavior research===

A 2007 study using pregnant mice showed that BPA changes the expression of key developmental [[genes]] that form the uterus which may impact female reproductive tract development and the future fertility of female fetuses the mother is carrying.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070215145120.htm</ref>

A series of studies made in 2009 found:

* Mouse ovary anomalies from exposure as low as 1&nbsp;µg/kg, concluded that BPA exposure causes long-term adverse reproductive and carcinogenic effects if exposure occurs during prenatal critical periods of differentiation.<ref name="pmid19590677">{{Cite pmid|19590677}}</ref>
* Neonatal exposure of as low as 50&nbsp;µg/kg disrupts ovarian development in mice.<ref name="pmid19535786">{{Cite pmid|19535786}}</ref><ref>[http://news.ncsu.edu/news/2009/06/wmspatisaulbparats.php Study Finds Reproductive Health Effects From Low Doses of Bisphenol-A]</ref><ref>{{Cite pmid|19696011}}</ref>
* Neonatal BPA exposition of as low as 50&nbsp;µg/kg permanently alters the hypothalamic estrogen-dependent mechanisms that govern sexual behavior in the adult female rat.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1016/j.reprotox.2009.06.012}}</ref>
* Prenatal exposure to BPA at levels of (10 μg/kg/day) affects behavioral sexual differentiation in male monkeys.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.03.005}}</ref>
* In placental JEG3 cells ''in vitro'' BPA may reduce estrogen synthesis.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.06.853  }}</ref>
* BPA exposure disrupted the [[blood-testis barrier]] when administered to immature, but not to adult, rats.<ref>{{Cite pmid|19497385}}</ref>
* Exposure to BPA in the workplace was associated with self-reported adult male sexual dysfunction.<ref>http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dep381</ref>

A 2009 rodent study, funded by EPA and conducted by some of its scientists, concluded that, compared with [[ethinyl estradiol]], low-dose exposures of bisphenol&nbsp;A (BPA) showed no effects on several reproductive functions and behavioral activities measured in female rats.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1093/toxsci/kfp266}}</ref> That study was criticized as flawed for using polycarbonate cages in the experiment (since polycarbonate contains BPA) and the claimed resistance of the rats to estradiol,<ref name="Vom2010">{{Cite doi|10.1093/toxsci/kfq048}}</ref> but that claim was contested by the authors and others.<ref name="pmid20207694">{{Cite journal | author=Gray LE, Ryan B, Hotchkiss AK, Crofton KM | title = Rebuttal of "Flawed Experimental Design Reveals the Need for Guidelines Requiring Appropriate Positive Controls in Endocrine Disruption Research" by (Vom Saal 2010) | journal=[[Toxicol Sci]] | volume = 115| issue = | pages = 614| year = 2010 | month = March | pmid = 20207694 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfq073 | url = http://toxsci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=20207694 | issn = }}</ref>  Another 2009 rodent study found that BPA exposure during pregnancy has a lasting effect on one of the genes that is responsible for uterine development and subsequent fertility in both mice and humans (HOXA10). The authors concluded, "We don't know what a safe level of BPA is, so pregnant women should avoid BPA exposure."<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090610124428.htm</ref>

In a 2010 study mice were given BPA at doses thought to be equivalent to levels currently being experienced by humans. The research showed that BPA exposure affects the earliest stages of egg production in the ovaries of the developing mouse fetuses, thus suggesting that the next generation may suffer genetic defects in such biological processes as [[mitosis]] and [[DNA]] replication.  In addition, the research team noted that their study "revealed a striking down-regulation of mitotic/cell cycle genes, raising the possibility that BPA exposure immediately before meiotic entry might act to shorten the reproductive lifespan of the female" by reducing the total pool of fetal [[oocytes]].<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100825093249.htm</ref>  Another 2010 study with mice concluded that BPA exposure in utero leads to permanent DNA alterations in sensitivity to estrogen.<ref>{{Cite pmid|20181937}}</ref>  Also in 2010, a rodent study found that by exposing fetal mice to BPA during pregnancy and examining gene expression and DNA in the uteruses of female fetuses, BPA exposure permanently affected the uterus by decreasing regulation of gene expression. The changes caused the mice to over-respond to estrogen throughout adulthood, long after the BPA exposure, thus suggesting that early exposure to BPA genetically "programmed" the uterus to be hyper-responsive to estrogen. Extreme estrogen sensitivity can lead to fertility problems, advanced puberty, altered mammary development and reproductive function, as well as a variety of hormone-related cancers.  One of the authors concluded that BPA may be similar to [[diethylstilbestrol]] caused birth defects and cancers in young women whose mothers were given the drug during pregnancy.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/02/100225101220.htm</ref>

A 2011 study using the rhesus monkey, a species that is very similar to humans in regard to pregnancy and fetal development, found that prenatal exposure to BPA causes changes in female primates' uterus development.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110607121127.htm</ref>  A 2011 rodent study found that male rats exposed to BPA had lower sperm counts and testosterone levels than those of unexposed males.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110606092740.htm</ref>  A 2011 mice study found that male mice exposed to BPA became demasculinized and behaved more like females in their spatial navigational abilities.  They were also less desirable to female mice.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110627151712.htm</ref>

===General research===
At an [[Endocrine Society]] meeting in 2009, new research reported data from animals experimentally treated with BPA.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/44577/title/More_troubling_news_about_BPA
|title=More Troubling News About BPA / Science News
|publisher=www.sciencenews.org
|accessdate=11 June 2009
}}
</ref> Studies presented at the group's annual meeting show BPA can affect the hearts of women, can permanently damage the DNA of mice, and appear to be entering the human body from a variety of unknown sources.<ref>
{{Cite web
|url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20090611/hl_nm/us_bisphenol_2
|title=Hormone experts worried about plastics, chemicals - Yahoo! News
|publisher=news.yahoo.com
|accessdate=11 June 2009
}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}
</ref>

A 2009 ''in vitro'' study on [[cytotrophoblast]]s cells has found [[Cytotoxicity|cytoxic]] effects in exposure of BPA doses from 0.0002 to 0.2 micrograms per millilitre and concluded this finding "suggests that exposure of placental cells to low doses of BPA may cause detrimental effects, leading ''in vivo'' to adverse pregnancy outcomes such as [[preeclampsia]], intrauterine growth restriction, prematurity and pregnancy loss"<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1016/j.taap.2009.09.005}}</ref>

A 2009 study in rats concluded that BPA, at the reference safe limit for human exposure, was found to impact intestinal permeability and may represent a risk factor in female offspring for developing severe [[Colitis|colonic inflammation]] in adulthood.<ref>{{Cite pmid|20018722}}</ref>

A 2010 study on mice has concluded that [[pregnancy#Perinatal_period|perinatal]] exposure to 10 micrograms/mL of BPA in drinking water enhances allergic sensitization and bronchial inflammation and responsiveness in an animal model of [[asthma]],<ref>{{Cite pmid|20123615}}</ref>and a 2011 study found that higher BPA concentrations in the urine of the pregnant women at 16 weeks were associated with wheezing, a symptom of asthma, in their babies.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110501183817.htm</ref>

====Studies on humans====
=====Lang study and heart disease=====
The first large study of health effects on humans associated with bisphenol&nbsp;A exposure was published in September 2008 by Iain Lang and colleagues in the ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]''.<ref name="Lang et al.">{{Cite journal |author=Lang IA, Galloway TS, Scarlett A, Henley WE, Depledge M, Wallace RB, Melzer D |title=Association of Urinary Bisphenol A Concentration With Medical Disorders and Laboratory Abnormalities in Adults |journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association|JAMA]] |volume= 300|issue=  11|pages= 1303–10|year=2008 |pmid= 18799442|doi=10.1001/jama.300.11.1303 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/300.11.1303}}</ref><ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/channel/health/dn14739-plastic-bottle-chemical-linked-to-heart-disease.html Newscientist.com] ''Plastic bottle chemical linked to heart disease''</ref> The [[cross-sectional study]] of almost 1,500 people assessed exposure to bisphenol&nbsp;A by looking at levels of the chemical in urine. The authors found that higher bisphenol&nbsp;A levels were [[Statistically significant|significantly]] associated with [[heart disease]], [[diabetes]], and abnormally high levels of certain liver enzymes. An editorial in the same issue concludes:

:"Based on this background information, the study by Lang et al,1 while preliminary with regard to these diseases in humans, should spur US regulatory agencies to follow the recent action taken by Canadian regulatory agencies, which have declared BPA a “toxic chemical” requiring aggressive action to limit human and environmental exposures.4 Alternatively, Congressional action could follow the precedent set with the recent passage of federal legislation designed to limit exposures to another family of compounds, phthalates, also used in plastic. Like BPA,5 phthalates are detectable in virtually everyone in the United States.6 This bill moves US policy closer to the European model, in which industry must provide data on the safety of a chemical before it can be used in products."<ref name=JAMAVS/><ref>http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/300/11/1353.full</ref>

A later similar study performed by the same group of scientists, published in January 2010, confirmed, despite of lower concentrations of BPA in the second study sample, an associated increased risk for heart disease but not for diabetes or liver enzymes.  Patients with the highest levels of BPA in their urine carried a 33% increased risk of coronary heart disease.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0008673}}</ref>

=====Other studies=====
Studies have associated recurrent miscarriage with BPA serum concentrations,<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1093/humrep/deh888}}</ref> oxidative stress and inflammation in postmenopausal women with urinary concentrations,<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1016/j.envres.2009.04.014}}</ref> externalizing behaviors in two-year old children, especially among female children, with mother's urinary concentrations,<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1289/ehp.0900979}}</ref> altered hormone levels in men<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1021/es9028292}}</ref><ref>{{Cite pmid|20494855}}</ref> and declining male sexual function<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Li DK, Zhou Z, Miao M, ''et al.'' |title=Relationship between Urine Bisphenol-A (BPA) Level and Declining Male Sexual Function |journal=J Androl |volume= 31|issue= 5|pages= 500–6|year=2010 |month=May |pmid=20467048 |doi=10.2164/jandrol.110.010413 |url= }}</ref> with urinary concentrations.
The Canadian Health Measures Survey, 2007 to 2009 published  in 2010 found that teenagers carry 30 percent more l bisphenol A (BPA) in their bodies than older adults. The reason for this is not known.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Bisphenol A concentrations in the Canadian population, 2007 to 2009 | date = 16 August 2010 | url = http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-625-x/2010002/article/11327-eng.htm | work=Statistics Canada | pages = 82–625-XWE | accessdate = 19 November 2010}}</ref> A 2010 study that analyzed BPA urinary concentrations has concluded that for people under 18 years of age BPA may negatively impact human immune function.<ref>{{Cite pmid|21062687}}</ref>  A study done in 2010 reported  the daily excretion levels of BPA among European adults in a large-scale and high-quality population-based sample, and it was shown that higher BPA daily excretion was associated with an increase in serum total [[testosterone]] concentration in men.<ref>http://ehp03.niehs.nih.gov/article/fetchArticle.action?articleURI=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.1002367d</ref>  A 2011 study found higher BPA levels in women with [[polycystic ovary syndrome]] compared to controls. Furthermore, researchers found a statistically significant positive association between male sex hormones and BPA in these women suggesting a potential role of BPA in ovarian dysfunction.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/01/110113082720.htm</ref>  A 2010 study found that people over age 18 with higher levels of BPA exposure had higher CMV [[antibody]] levels, which suggests their cell-mediated [[immune system]] may not be functioning properly.<ref>Antibacterial Soaps: Being Too Clean Can Make People Sick, Study Suggests: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101129101920.htm</ref>

=====Sexual difficulties=====
A 2009 study on Chinese workers in BPA factories found that workers were four times more likely to report [[erectile dysfunction]], reduced sexual desire and overall dissatisfaction with their sex life than workers with no heightened BPA exposure.<ref>{{Cite journal
 |author=D. Li, Z. Zhou, D. Qing, Y. He, T. Wu, M. Miao, J. Wang, X. Weng, J.R. Ferber, L.J. Herrinton, Q. Zhu, E. Gao, H. Checkoway, and W. Yuan
 |title=Occupational exposure to bisphenol-A (BPA) and the risk of Self-Reported Male Sexual Dysfunction 
 |format=
 |journal=Human Reproduction
 |volume= 25|issue= 2|pages= 519–27|year=2009 |month=
 |pmid= 19906654|pmc= |doi=10.1093/humrep/dep381
 |url=}}</ref> BPA workers were also seven times more likely to have ejaculation difficulties. They were also more likely to report reduced sexual function within one year of beginning employment at the factory, and the higher the exposure, the more likely they were to have sexual difficulties.<ref>[http://www.ajc.com/health/content/shared-auto/healthnews/envm/632954.html BPA Tied to Impotence in Men]</ref>

====Historical studies====
The first evidence of the [[estrogenicity]] of bisphenol&nbsp;A came from experiments on rats conducted in the 1930s,<ref>{{Cite journal | author=Dodds E. C., Lawson Wilfrid | year = 1936 | title = Synthetic Œstrogenic Agents without the Phenanthrene Nucleus | url = | journal=Nature | volume = 137 | issue =3476 | page = 996 |bibcode=1936Natur.137..996D | doi=10.1038/137996a0}}</ref><ref>E. C. Dodds and W. Lawson, ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences'', 125, #839 (27-IV-1938), pp. 222–232.</ref> but it was not until 1997 that adverse effects of low-dose exposure on laboratory animals were first reported.<ref name=C&ENews/>

===Low-dose exposure in animals===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dose (µg/kg/day)
! Effects (measured in studies of mice or rats,<br />descriptions (in quotes) are from [[Environmental Working Group]])<ref name="globemittelstaedt">{{Cite news | last=Mittelstaedt | first=Martin | title='Inherently toxic' chemical faces its future | date=7 April 2007 | url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070406.wbisphenolA0407/BNStory/National/ | accessdate=7 April 2007 | publisher=Globe & Mail | location=Toronto}}</ref><ref name="EWG-BPA">This table is adapted from: EWG, 2007. "Many studies confirm BPA's low-dose toxicity across a diverse range of toxic effects," Environmental Working Group Report: A Survey of Bisphenol A in U.S. Canned Foods. Accessed 4 November 2007 at http://www.ewg.org/node/20941. All studies included in this table where judged by the CEHRH panel to be at least of moderate usefulness for assessing the risk of BPA to human reproduction.</ref>
! Study Year
|-
| 0.025
| "Permanent changes to genital tract"
| 2005<ref name="pmid15689538">{{Cite journal |author=Markey CM, Wadia PR, Rubin BS, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM |title=Long-term effects of fetal exposure to low doses of the xenoestrogen bisphenol-A in the female mouse genital tract |journal=[[Biol. Reprod.]] |volume=72 |issue=6 |pages=1344–51 |year=2005 |pmid=15689538 |doi=10.1095/biolreprod.104.036301 |url=http://www.biolreprod.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15689538}}</ref>
|-
| 0.025
| "Changes in breast tissue that predispose cells to hormones and carcinogens"
| 2005<ref name="pmid15919749">{{Cite journal |author=Muñoz-de-Toro M, Markey CM, Wadia PR, ''et al'' |title=Perinatal exposure to bisphenol-A alters peripubertal mammary gland development in mice |journal=[[Endocrinology (journal)|Endocrinology]] |volume=146 |issue=9 |pages=4138–47 |year=2005 |pmid=15919749 |doi=10.1210/en.2005-0340 |url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15919749 |pmc=2834307}}</ref>
|-
| 1
| long-term adverse reproductive and carcinogenic effects
| 2009<ref name="pmid19590677"/>
|-
| 2
| "increased prostate weight 30%"
| 1997<ref name="pmid9074884">{{Cite journal |author=Nagel SC, vom Saal FS, Thayer KA, Dhar MG, Boechler M, Welshons WV |title=Relative binding affinity-serum modified access (RBA-SMA) assay predicts the relative in vivo bioactivity of the xenoestrogens bisphenol A and octylphenol |journal=[[Environ. Health Perspect.]] |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=70–6 |year=1997 |pmid=9074884 |doi=10.2307/3433065 |pmc=1469837 |jstor=3433065}}</ref>
|-
| 2<!-- abstract says says 2.0, EWG report says 2.4 -->
| "lower bodyweight, increase of [[anogenital distance]] in both genders, signs of early puberty and longer estrus."
| 2002<ref name="pmid11955942">{{Cite journal |author=Honma S, Suzuki A, Buchanan DL, Katsu Y, Watanabe H, Iguchi T |title=Low dose effect of in utero exposure to bisphenol A and diethylstilbestrol on female mouse reproduction |journal=[[Reprod. Toxicol.]] |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=117–22 |year=2002 |pmid=11955942 |doi= 10.1016/S0890-6238(02)00006-0|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0890623802000060}}</ref>
|-
| 2.4
| "Decline in testicular testosterone"
| 2004<ref name="pmid14605012">{{Cite journal |author=Akingbemi BT, Sottas CM, Koulova AI, Klinefelter GR, Hardy MP |title=Inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis by the xenoestrogen bisphenol A is associated with reduced pituitary luteinizing hormone secretion and decreased steroidogenic enzyme gene expression in rat Leydig cells |journal=[[Endocrinology (journal)|Endocrinology]] |volume=145 |issue=2 |pages=592–603 |year=2004 |pmid=14605012 |doi=10.1210/en.2003-1174 |url=http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=14605012}}</ref>
|-
| 2.5
| "Breast cells predisposed to cancer"
| 2007<ref name="pmid17123778">{{Cite journal |author=Murray TJ, Maffini MV, Ucci AA, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM |title=Induction of mammary gland ductal hyperplasias and carcinoma in situ following fetal bisphenol A exposure |journal=[[Reprod. Toxicol.]] |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=383–90 |year=2007 |pmid=17123778 |doi=10.1016/j.reprotox.2006.10.002 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0890-6238(06)00263-2 |pmc=1987322}}</ref>
|-
| 10
| "Prostate cells more sensitive to hormones and cancer"
| 2006<ref name="pmid16740699">{{Cite journal |author=Ho SM, Tang WY, Belmonte de Frausto J, Prins GS |title=Developmental exposure to estradiol and bisphenol A increases susceptibility to prostate carcinogenesis and epigenetically regulates phosphodiesterase type 4 variant 4 |journal=[[Cancer Res.]] |volume=66 |issue=11 |pages=5624–32 |year=2006 |pmid=16740699 |doi=10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-06-0516 |url=http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16740699 |pmc=2276876}}</ref>
|-
| 10
| "Decreased maternal behaviors"
| 2002<ref name="pmid12060838">{{Cite journal |author=Palanza PL, Howdeshell KL, Parmigiani S, vom Saal FS |title=Exposure to a low dose of bisphenol A during fetal life or in adulthood alters maternal behavior in mice |journal=[[Environ. Health Perspect.]] |volume=110 Suppl 3 |issue= |pages=415–22 |year=2002 |pmid=12060838 |doi= |url=http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2002/suppl-3/415-422palanza/abstract.html |pmc=1241192}}</ref>
|-
<!--  values in abstract (PMID: 15079872) don't agree with LOAEL listed in EWG report| 30
| "Hyperactivity"
| 2004
|- -->
| 30
| "Reversed the normal sex differences in brain structure and behavior"
| 2003<ref name="pmid12631470">{{Cite journal |author=Kubo K, Arai O, Omura M, Watanabe R, Ogata R, Aou S |title=Low dose effects of bisphenol A on sexual differentiation of the brain and behavior in rats |journal=[[Neurosci. Res.]] |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=345–56 |year=2003 |pmid=12631470 |doi= 10.1016/S0168-0102(02)00251-1|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0168010202002511}}</ref>
|-
| 50
| Adverse neurological effects occur in [[primates|non-human primates]]
| 2008<ref name="pmid18768812">{{Cite journal |author=Leranth C, Hajszan T, Szigeti-Buck K, Bober J, Maclusky NJ |title=Bisphenol A prevents the synaptogenic response to estradiol in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of ovariectomized nonhuman primates |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume= 105|issue= 37|pages= 14187|year=2008 |month=September |pmid=18768812 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0806139105 |url= |pmc=2544599}}</ref>
|-
| 50
| Disrupts ovarian development
| 2009<ref name="pmid19535786"/>
|-
|}

<!-- controversial
A study from 2008 concluded that blood levels of bisphenol&nbsp;A in neonatal mice are the same whether it is injected or ingested.<ref name="pmid18295446">{{Cite journal |author=Taylor JA, Welshons WV, Vom Saal FS |title=No effect of route of exposure (oral; subcutaneous injection) on plasma bisphenol A throughout 24h after administration in neonatal female mice |journal=Reprod. Toxicol. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=169–76 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=18295446 |doi=10.1016/j.reprotox.2008.01.001 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0890-6238(08)00002-6 |accessdate=5 May 2008}}</ref>-->
The current U.S. human exposure limit set by the EPA is 50&nbsp;µg/kg/day.<ref>EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1988. [http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0356.htm Oral RfD Assessment: Bisphenol A. Integrated Risk Information System].</ref>

<!-- Ongoing discussion
In a 2010 commentary a group of scientists criticized a study designed to test low dose BPA exposure published in ''"Toxicological Sciences"''<ref>{{Cite pmid|19864446}}</ref> and a later editorial by the same journal<ref>{{Cite pmid|20147444}}</ref> which claimed the rats used in the study were insensitive to estrogen and that had other problems like the use of polycabornate cages<ref name="Vom2010" /> while the authors disagreed.<ref>{{Cite pmid|20207694}}</ref>
-->

===Xenoestrogen===
There is evidence that bisphenol&nbsp;A functions as a [[xenoestrogen]] by binding strongly to [[estrogen-related receptor gamma|estrogen-related receptor γ]] (ERR-γ).<ref name=matsushima/> This [[orphan receptor]] (endogenous ligand unknown) behaves as a constitutive activator of transcription. BPA seems to bind strongly to ERR-γ ([[dissociation constant]] = 5.5 nM), but not to the [[estrogen receptor]] (ER).<ref name=matsushima/> BPA binding to ERR-γ preserves its basal constitutive activity.<ref name=matsushima/> It can also protect it from deactivation from the [[selective estrogen receptor modulator]] [[4-hydroxytamoxifen]].<ref name="matsushima">{{Cite journal | author=Matsushima A, Kakuta Y, Teramoto T, Koshiba T, Liu X, Okada H, Tokunaga T, Kawabata S, Kimura M, Shimohigashi Y | title = Structural evidence for endocrine disruptor bisphenol A binding to human nuclear receptor ERR gamma | journal=J. Biochem. | volume = 142 | issue = 4 | pages = 517–24 | year = 2007 | month = October | pmid = 17761695 | doi = 10.1093/jb/mvm158 | url = }}</ref>

Different expression of ERR-γ in different parts of the body may account for variations in bisphenol&nbsp;A effects. For instance, ERR-γ has been found in high concentration in the [[placenta]], explaining reports of high bisphenol accumulation in this tissue.<ref name="pmid19304792">{{Cite journal | author=Takeda Y, Liu X, Sumiyoshi M, Matsushima A, Shimohigashi M, Shimohigashi Y | title = Placenta expressing the greatest quantity of bisphenol A receptor ERR{gamma} among the human reproductive tissues: Predominant expression of type-1 ERRgamma isoform | journal=J. Biochem. | volume = 146 | issue = 1 | pages = 113–22 | year = 2009 | month = July | pmid = 19304792 | doi = 10.1093/jb/mvp049 | url = }}</ref>

==Human exposure sources==
{{rquote|right|The problem is, BPA is also a synthetic estrogen, and plastics with BPA can break down, especially when they're washed, heated or stressed, allowing the chemical to leach into food and water and then enter the human body. That happens to nearly all of us; the CDC has found BPA in the urine of 93% of surveyed Americans over the age of 6. If you don't have BPA in your body, you're not living in the modern world. |[http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1976909_1976908_1976938-2,00.html The Perils of Plastic], [[TIME Magazine]]<ref name="timeBPA1">{{Cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1976909_1976908_1976938-2,00.html|title=The Perils of Plastic - Environmental Toxins - TIME|last=Walsh|first=Bryan|date=Thursday, 1 Apr. 2010|work=TIME|accessdate=2 July 2010}}</ref>}}
Bisphenol&nbsp;A has been known to be leached from the plastic lining of canned foods<ref>{{Cite web | title = Environmental Working Group | url =http://www.ewg.org/reports/bisphenola | accessdate = 7 March 2007}}</ref> and polycarbonate [[plastics]], especially those that are cleaned with harsh detergents or those which contain acidic or high-temperature liquids. BPA is an ingredient in the internal coating of metal food and beverage cans used to protect the food from direct contact with the can. A recent [[Health Canada]] study found that the majority of canned [[soft drink]]s it tested had low, but measurable levels of bisphenol&nbsp;A.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/packag-emball/bpa/bpa_survey-enquete-can-eng.php|title=Survey of Bisphenol A in Canned Drink Products|last=Health Canada|accessdate=13 March 2009}}</ref>  Furthermore, A study conducted by the University of Texas School of Public Health in 2010, found BPA in 63 of 105 samples of fresh and canned foods, foods sold in plastic packaging, and in cat and dog foods in cans and plastic packaging.  This included fresh turkey, canned green beans, and canned infant formula. <ref>{{Cite pmid|21038926}}</ref> While most human exposure is through diet, exposure can also occur through air and through skin absorption.<ref name="Melzer et al.">{{Cite journal |author=Lang IA Galloway TS, Scarlett A, Henley WE, Depledge M, Wallace, Robert B, Melzer, D |title=Association of Urinary Bisphenol A Concentration With Medical Disorders and Laboratory Abnormalities in Adults |journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association|JAMA]] |volume= 300|issue=  11|pages= 1303–10|year=2008 |pmid= 18799442|doi=10.1001/jama.300.11.1303 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/300.11.1303}}</ref>

A 2011 study published in ''Environmental Health Perspectives'', “Food Packaging and Bisphenol A and Bis(2-Ethyhexyl) Phthalate Exposure: Findings from a Dietary Intervention," selected 20 participants based on their self-reported use of canned and packaged foods to study BPA. Participants ate their usual diets, followed by three days of consuming foods that were not canned or packaged. The study's findings include: 1) evidence of BPA in participants’ urine decreased by 50% to 70% during the period of eating fresh foods; and 2), participants’ reports of their food practices suggested that consumption of canned foods and beverages and restaurant meals were the most likely sources of exposure to BPA in their usual diets. The researchers note that, even beyond these 20 participants, BPA exposure is widespread, with detectable levels in urine samples in more than an estimated 90% of the U.S. population.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/health/food-packaging-diet-bpa-chemical/ |title = “Food Packaging and Bisphenol A and Bis(2-Ethyhexyl) Phthalate Exposure: Findings from a Dietary Intervention”|publisher = Journalist's Resource.org }}</ref>

Free BPA is found in high concentration in [[thermal paper]] and [[carbonless copy paper]], which would be expected to be more available for exposure than BPA bound into resin or plastic.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48084/title/Concerned_about_BPA_Check_your_receipts|title=Concerned About BPA: Check Your Receipts|last=Raloff|first=Janet|date=7 October 2009|publisher=Society for Science and the Public|accessdate=7 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://rcswww.urz.tu-dresden.de/~gehring/deutsch/dt/vortr/040929ge.pdf|format=PDF|title=Bisphenol A Contamination of Wastepaper, Cellulose and Recycled Paper Products|last=Gehring|first=Martin| coauthors = Tennhardt, L., Vogel, D., Weltin, D., Bilitewski, B. | series = Waste Management and the Environment II. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, vol. 78 |year=2004|publisher=WIT Press|accessdate=15 October 2009|laysummary=http://rcswww.urz.tu-dresden.de/~gehring/deutsch/dt/poster/030331g2.pdf}}</ref>  Popular uses of thermal paper include receipts, event and cinema tickets, labels, and airline tickets. A Swiss study found that 11 of 13 thermal printing papers contained {{nowrap|8 - 17 g/kg}} {{nowrap|Bisphenol A}} (BPA). Upon dry finger contact with a thermal paper receipt, roughly {{nowrap|1 μg}} BPA ({{nowrap|0.2 – 6 μg}}) was transferred to the forefinger and the middle finger. For wet or greasy fingers approximately {{nowrap|10 times}} more was transferred. Extraction of BPA from the fingers was possible up to {{nowrap|2 hours}} after exposure.<ref name="citeulike_receipt_7497437">{{Cite web|title=CiteULike: Transfer of bisphenol A from thermal printer paper to the skin|url=http://www.citeulike.org/article/7497437}} 100821 citeulike.org</ref>  While there is little concern for dermal absorption of BPA, free BPA can readily be transferred to skin and residues on hands can be ingested.<ref name="epa-action-plan"/>

Studies conducted by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] found bisphenol&nbsp;A in the urine of 95% of adults sampled in 1988–1994<ref name="pmid15811827">{{Cite journal |author=Calafat AM, Kuklenyik Z, Reidy JA, Caudill SP, Ekong J, Needham LL |title=Urinary concentrations of bisphenol A and 4-nonylphenol in a human reference population |journal=[[Environ. Health Perspect.]] |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=391–5 |year=2005 |pmid=15811827 |doi= 10.1289/ehp.7534|url=http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/members/2004/7534/7534.html |pmc=1278476}}</ref> and in 93% of children and adults tested in 2003–04.<ref name="pmid18197297">{{Cite journal |author=Calafat AM, Ye X, Wong LY, Reidy JA, Needham LL |title=Exposure of the U.S. population to bisphenol A and 4-tertiary-octylphenol: 2003–2004 |journal=[[Environ. Health Perspect.]] |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=39–44 |year=2008 |pmid=18197297 |doi=10.1289/ehp.10753 |pmc=2199288}}</ref>  While the EPA considers exposures up to 50&nbsp;µg/kg/day to be safe, the most sensitive animal studies show effects at much lower doses.<ref name="globemittelstaedt"/><ref>[http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0356.htm Bisphenol A] - [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]</ref>

In 2009, a study found that drinking from polycarbonate bottles increased urinary bisphenol&nbsp;A levels by two thirds, from 1.2 micrograms/gram creatinine to 2 micrograms/gram creatinine.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Carwile JL, Luu HT, Bassett LS, Driscoll DA, Yuan C, Chang JY, Ye X, Calafat AM, Michels KB |title=Use of Polycarbonate Bottles and Urinary Bisphenol A Concentrations |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |volume= 117|issue= 9|pages= 1368–72|year=2009 |month= |pmc= 2737011|doi=10.1289/ehp.0900604 |url=http://www.ehponline.org/members/2009/0900604/0900604.pdf |pmid=19750099}}</ref>  Consumer groups recommend that people wishing to lower their exposure to bisphenol&nbsp;A avoid [[canned food]] and [[polycarbonate]] plastic containers (which shares [[resin identification code]] 7 with many other plastics) unless the packaging indicates the plastic is bisphenol&nbsp;A-free.<ref>[http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.htm?programID=08-P13-00038&segmentID=4 War of the Sciences] Air Date: Week of 19 September 2008 - Ashley Ahearn, Living on Earth</ref>  In order to avoid the possibility of BPA leaching into food or drink, the National Toxicology Panel recommends avoiding microwaving food in plastic containers, putting plastics in the dishwasher, or using harsh detergents.<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=94680753 FDA Weighs Safety Of Bisphenol A]</ref> 
In the U.S., consumption of soda, school lunches, and meals prepared outside the home was statistically significantly associated with higher urinary BPA.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1038/jes.2010.9}}</ref>

BPA is also used to form epoxy resin coating of water pipes.  In older buildings, such resin coatings are used to avoid replacement of deteriorating hot and cold water pipes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aceduraflo.com/fixmypipes.html|title=Pipeline relining|accessdate=18 October 2010}}</ref>

===Fetal and Early Childhood Exposures===

Children may be more susceptible to BPA exposure than adults.  A recent study found higher urinary concentrations in young children than in adults under typical exposure scenarios.<ref>{{Cite pmid|19440506}}</ref>  This increased susceptibility is most likely based on their reduced capacity to eliminate [[xenobiotics]]<ref>{{Cite pmid|18406467}}</ref> and also their estimated higher daily exposure to BPA, adjusted for weight, compared to adults.<ref>{{Cite web | title = European Food Safety Authority Opinion | url =http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/science/afc/afc_opinions/bisphenol_a.html | format = Abstract  | accessdate = 25 March 2011}}</ref>
 
Infants fed with liquid formula are among the most exposed, and those fed formula from polycarbonate bottles can consume up to 13 micrograms of bisphenol&nbsp;A per kg of body weight per day (μg/kg/day; see table below).<ref>{{Cite web | title = European Food Safety Authority Opinion | url =http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/science/afc/afc_opinions/bisphenol_a.html | format = Abstract  | accessdate = 28 February 2007}}</ref>  In the US and Canada, BPA has been found in infant liquid formula in concentrations varying from 0.48 to 11&nbsp;ng/g.<ref name="infantformulaUS">{{Cite pmid|20102208}}</ref><ref>{{Cite pmid|18702469}}</ref> BPA has been rarely found in infant powder formula (only 1 of 14).<ref name="infantformulaUS"/>  While breast milk is the optimal source of nutrition for infants, it is not always an option.  The [[U.S. Department of Health & Human Services]] (HHS) states that "the benefit of a stable source of good nutrition from infant formula and food outweighs the potential risk of BPA exposure.".<ref>{{Cite web | title = Bisphenol A (BPA) Information for Parents | url=http://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/|publisher=[[U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]]|accessdate=25 March 2011}}</ref>

A 2010 study of people in Austria, Switzerland, and Germany has suggested polycarbonate (PC) baby bottles as the most prominent role of exposure for infants, and canned food for adults and teenagers.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1111/j.1539-6924.2009.01345.x}}</ref>  In the United States, the growing concern over BPA exposure in infants in recent years has lead the manufacturers of plastic baby bottles to stop using BPA in their bottles. However, babies may still be exposed if they are fed with old or hand-me-down bottles bought before the companies stopped using BPA.

One often overlooked source of exposure occurs when a pregnant woman is exposed, thereby exposing the fetus. Animal studies have shown that BPA can be found in both the placenta and the amniotic fluid of pregnant mice. <ref>{{Cite PMID|12611660}}</ref>  A small US study in 2009, funded by the [[Environmental Working Group|EWG]], detected an average of 2.8&nbsp;ng/mL BPA in the blood of 9 out of the 10 [[umbilical cord]]s tested.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ewg.org/files/2009-Minority-Cord-Blood-Report.pdf|title=Cord Blood Contaminants in Minority Newborns|year=2009|publisher=[[Environmental Working Group]]|accessdate=2 December 2009}}</ref>  After the baby is born, maternal exposure can continue to effect the infant through transfer of BPA to the infant via breast milk. <ref>{{Cite PMID|15386523}}</ref><ref>{{Cite PMID|16377264}}</ref>  Because of these exposures that can occur both during and after pregnancy, mothers wishing to limit their child’s exposure to BPA should attempt to limit their own exposures during that time period. 

While the majority of exposures have been shown to come through the diet, accidental ingestion can also be considered a source of exposure. One study conducted in Japan tested plastic baby books to look for possible leaching into saliva when babies chew on them. <ref>{{Cite PMID|20508389}}</ref>  While the results of this study have yet to be replicated, it gives reason to question whether exposure can also occur in infants through ingestion by chewing on certain books or toys.


{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Population
! Estimated daily bisphenol&nbsp;A intake, μg/kg/day.<br />Table adapted from the National Toxicology Program Expert Panel Report.
|-
| Infant (0–6 months)<br />formula-fed
| <center>1–24</center>
|-
| Infant (0–6 months)<br />breast-fed
| <center>0.2–1 </center>
|-
| Infant (6–12 months)
| <center>1.65–13</center>
|-
| Child (1.5–6 years)
| <center>0.043–14.7</center>
|-
| Adult
| <center>0.008–1.5</center>
|-
|}

==Pharmacokinetics==
There is no agreement between scientists of a [[Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modelling|physiologically-based]] [[pharmacokinetic]] (PBPK) BPA model for humans. The effects of BPA on an organism depend on how much free BPA is available and for how long cells are exposed to it. [[Glucuronidation]] in the liver, by conjugation with glucuronic acid to form the metabolite BPA-glucuronide (BPAG),<ref name="epa-action-plan"/> reduces the amount of free BPA, however BPAG can be deconjugated by [[beta-glucuronidase]], an enzyme present in high concentration in placenta and other tissues.<ref name="Ginsberg"/><ref name="placenta">{{Cite pmid|20382578}}</ref> Free BPA can also be inactivated by sulfation, a process that can also be reverted by [[arylsulfatase C]].<ref name="Ginsberg">{{Cite journal|last=Gary Ginsberg and Deborah C. Rice|date=November 2009|title=Does Rapid Metabolism Ensure Negligible Risk from Bisphenol A?|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=117|issue=11|pages=1639–1643|url=http://www.ehponline.org/members/2009/0901010/0901010.pdf|accessdate=16 November 2009|pmid=20049111|first1=G|last2=Rice|first2=DC|doi=10.1289/ehp.0901010|pmc=2801165}}</ref> A 2010 vitro study has shown that placenta [[P-glycoprotein]] may efflux BPA from placenta.<ref>{{Cite pmid|20214975}}</ref>

The best test methods for studying BPA effects are currently under discussion with scientists sharing different opinions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last= Borrell|first= Brendan |authorlink= |date= 21 April|year=2010|title= Toxicology: The big test for bisphenol A |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume= 464|series= |issue= 7292|pages= 1122–1124 |pmid= 20414285|doi= 10.1038/4641122a |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100421/full/4641122a.html|accessdate= 21 April 2010 |quote= }}</ref>

A 2010 review of 80+ biomonitoring studies concluded that the general population is internally exposed to significant amounts of unconjugated BPA (in the ng/ml blood range).<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1289/ehp.0901716}}</ref> Using [[Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry|GC/MS]] on 20 samples, BPA was detected in 100% of urine samples with a median of 1.25&nbsp;ng/ml, and 10% of blood samples ([[Detection limit|LOD]] 0.5&nbsp;ng/ml).<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Geens T, Neels H, Covaci A |title=Sensitive and selective method for the determination of bisphenol-A and triclosan in serum and urine as pentafluorobenzoate-derivatives using GC-ECNI/MS |journal=J. Chromatogr. B Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. |volume=877 |issue=31 |pages=4042–6 |year=2009 |month=December |pmid=19884050 |doi=10.1016/j.jchromb.2009.10.017 |url=}}</ref>

A 2009 research has found that some drugs, like [[naproxen]], [[salicylic acid]], [[carbamazepine]] and [[mefenamic acid]] can, ''in vitro'', significantly inhibit BPA glucuronidation.<ref>{{Cite pmid|19916736}}</ref>

A 2010 study on rats embryos has found that [[genistein]] may enhance developmental toxicity of BPA.<ref>{{Cite pmid|20299547}}</ref>

==Environmental risk==
In general, studies have shown that BPA can affect growth, reproduction and development in aquatic organisms. Among freshwater organisms, fish appear to be the most sensitive species. Evidence of endocrine-related effects in fish, aquatic invertebrates, amphibians and reptiles has been reported at environmentally relevant exposure levels lower than those required for acute toxicity. There is a widespread variation in reported values for endocrine-related effects, but many fall in the range of 1μg/L to 1&nbsp;mg/L.<ref name="epa-action-plan"/>

BPA can contaminate the environment either directly or through degradation of products containing BPA, such as ocean-borne plastic trash.<ref>{{Cite web
 | title=Plastic Breaks Down in Ocean, After All -- And Fast
 | first=Carolyn
 | last=Barry
 | work=[[National Geographic]] News
 | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090820-plastic-decomposes-oceans-seas.html
 | date=20 August 2009
 | accessdate=30 August 2009
}}</ref>

As an environmental contaminant this compound interferes with [[nitrogen fixation]] at the roots of [[leguminous]] plants associated with the [[bacterial]] [[symbiont]] ''[[Sinorhizobium meliloti]]''. Despite a [[half-life]] in the soil of only 1–10 days, its ubiquity makes it an important [[pollutant]].<ref name=fox>{{Cite journal | author=Fox, J.E., J. Gulledge, E. Engelhaupt, M.E. Burrow & J.A. McLachlan | title=Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficiency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants | journal=[[PNAS|Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.]] | year=2007 | volume=104 | pages=10282–7 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0611710104 | pmid=17548832 | issue=24 | pmc=1885820}}</ref> According to [[Environment Canada]], "initial assessment shows that at low levels, bisphenol&nbsp;A can harm fish and organisms over time. Studies also indicate that it can currently be found in municipal wastewater."<ref>[http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/challenge-defi/bisphenol-a_fs-fr_e.html Bisphenol A Fact Sheet], Government of Canada. Assessed 19 April 2008.</ref>

A 2009 review of the biological impacts of plasticizers on wildlife published by the [[Royal Society]] with a focus on annelids (both aquatic and terrestrial), [[molluscs]], [[crustaceans]], insects, fish and [[amphibian]]s concluded that BPA have been shown to affect reproduction in all studied animal groups, to impair development in crustaceans and amphibians and to induce genetic aberrations.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1098/rstb.2008.0242}}</ref>

A large 2010 study of two rivers in Canada found that areas contaminated with hormone-like chemicals including bisphenol&nbsp;A  showed females made up 85 per cent of the population of a certain fish, while females made up only 55 per cent in uncontaminated areas.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/07/100729122332.htm</ref>

==Government and industry response==
===World Health Organization===
Arguing uncertainty of possible adverse health effects of low dose BPA exposure, especially on the nervous system and on behaviour, and also the differences of exposure of very young children, the WHO announced in November 2009 that it would organize an expert consultation in 2010 to assess BPA safety.<ref name="infosan">{{Cite web|url=http://www.who.int/entity/foodsafety/publications/fs_management/No_05_Bisphenol_A_Nov09_en.pdf|title=BISPHENOL A (BPA) - Current state of knowledge and  future actions by WHO and FAO|date=27 November 2009|accessdate=2 December 2009}}</ref>

The WHO expert panel recommended no new regulations limiting or banning the use of Bisphenol-A; stating that "initiation of public health measures would be premature."<ref>Brown, Eryn. [http://articles.latimes.com/2010/nov/11/news/la-heb-who-bpa-20101111 "Jury still out on BPA, World Health Organization says"], ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]'', 11 November 2010. Retrieved on 7 February 2011 </ref>

===Australia and New Zealand===
The Australia and New Zealand Food Safety Authority ([[Food Standards Australia New Zealand]]) does not see any health risk with bisphenol&nbsp;A [[baby bottle]]s if the manufacturer's instructions are followed. Levels of exposure are very low and do not pose a significant health risk. It added that “the move by overseas manufacturers to stop using BPA in baby bottles is a voluntary action and not the result of a specific action by regulators.”[http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/newsroom/factsheets/factsheets2009/bisphenolabpaandfood4218.cfm] It suggests the use of glass baby bottles if parents have any concerns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals-nutrients-additives-and-toxins/bisphenol-a.htm|title=Baby’s bottles and bisphenol A|date=May 2008|publisher=[[New Zealand Food Safety Authority]]|accessdate=21 March 2009}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

===Canada===
In April 2008, [[Health Canada]] concluded that, while adverse health effects were not expected, the margin of safety was too small for formula-fed infants<ref name='C&EN'>{{Cite news  | last = Morrissey  | first = Susan R.  | title = Banning Bisphenol A In Baby Bottles: Canada moves toward restricting the chemical; Congress proposes similar legislation  | newspaper=Chemical and Engineering News | pages =   | date = 23 April 2008  | url = http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/86/i17/8617news4.html}}.</ref> and proposed classifying the chemical as "'toxic' to human health and the environment."<ref>[http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/challenge-defi/bisphenol-a_e.html Government of Canada Takes Action on Another Chemical of Concern: Bisphenol A], Chemical Substances, Health Canada. Accessed 19 April 2008.</ref>

After the release of that assessment, Canadian Health Minister [[Tony Clement]] announced Canada's intent to ban the import, sale, and advertisement of polycarbonate baby bottles containing bisphenol&nbsp;A due to safety concerns, and investigate ways to reduce BPA contamination of baby formula packaged in metal cans. While the agency concluded that human exposures were less than levels believed to be unsafe, the margin of safety was not high enough  for formula-fed infants.<ref name=HealthCanada/><ref>The government will evaluate whether the ban will become law in October 2008. {{Cite news | title=Government of Canada Takes Action on Another Chemical of Concern: Bisphenol A | url=http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/challenge-defi/bisphenol-a_e.html|accessdate=18 April 2008}}</ref> Around the same time, [[Wal-Mart]] announced that it was immediately ceasing sales in all its Canadian stores of food containers, water and baby bottles, sippy cups, and pacifiers containing bisphenol&nbsp;A, and that it would phase out baby bottles made with it in U.S. stores by early 2009.<ref>[http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/wal-mart-pull-baby-bottles-made/story.aspx?guid=%7BF360BF61-1D66-4559-A370-EA6CF49E1366%7D&dist=msr_4 Wal-Mart to pull baby bottles made with chemical BPA: Washington Post], Market Watch, 18 April 2008.</ref> [[Nalgene]] also announced it will stop using the chemical in its products,<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/business/18plastic.html?ref=business Bottle Maker to Stop Using Plastic Linked to Health Concerns], ''New York Times'', 18 April 2008.</ref> and [[Toys-R-Us]] said it too will cease selling baby bottles made from it.<ref>{{Cite news  | title = Toys 'R' Us to phase out bisphenol A baby bottles | publisher=CBC News | date = 22 April 2008 | url = http://www.cbc.ca/consumer/story/2008/04/22/bottles-bpa.html | accessdate = 22 April 2008}}</ref> Subsequent news reports showed many retailers removing polycarbonate drinking products from their shelves.<ref>[http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Politics/2008/04/15/5293466-cp.html Canoe.ca], Politics: Bisphenol A water-bottle removal expanding among Canadian retailers</ref>

<!--outdated
In 2006, Canadian regulators selected bisphenol&nbsp;A as one of 200 substances deserving of thorough safety assessments because preliminary studies had found it to be "inherently toxic"; the chemical had not previously been studied by them in depth, having been accepted under [[grandfather clause]]s when stricter regulations were passed in the 1980s.<ref name="globemittelstaedt" />-->
The federal government proposed declaring {{nowrap|Bisphenol A}} a hazardous substance in October 2008 and has since placed it on its list of toxic substances. Health officials wrote in ''[[Canada Gazette]]'' that "It is concluded that bisphenol&nbsp;A be considered as a substance that may be entering the environment in a quantity or concentration or under conditions that constitute or may constitute a danger in Canada to human life or health."<ref>{{Cite news  | title = Toxic status possible for bisphenol A in Canada | publisher=CBC News | date = 17 October 2008 | url = http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2008/10/17/bpa-toxic.html | accessdate = 17 October 2008}}</ref> The federal ministries of health and the [[Environment Canada|environment]] announced they would seek to restrict imports, sales and advertising of [[polycarbonate]] baby bottles containing BPA.<ref>{{Cite news  | title =Canada moves to ban bisphenol A in baby bottles | publisher=CBC News | date = 18 October 2008 | url = http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/10/18/bpa-regulations.html | accessdate = 20 October 2008}}</ref>

In its statement released on 18 October 2008, Health Canada noted that “bisphenol&nbsp;A exposure to newborns and infants is below levels that cause effects” and that the “general public need not be concerned”.<ref>http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/media/nr-cp/_2008/2008_167-eng.php Gc.ca</ref>

[[Environment Canada]] listed bisphenol A as a "toxic substance" in September 2010.<ref>[http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p2/2010/2010-10-13/html/sor-dors194-eng.html Order Adding a Toxic Substance to Schedule 1 to the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999] ''[[Canada Gazette]]'' 13 October 2010 </ref>

===Europe===
====European Union====
The updated 2008 European Union Risk Assessment Report on {{nowrap|bisphenol A}}, published in June 2008, by the European Commission and [[European Food Safety Authority]] (EFSA), concluded that {{nowrap|bisphenol A}}-based products, such as [[polycarbonate]] plastic and [[epoxy]] resins, are safe for consumers and the environment when used as intended.<ref>[[Rapporteur]]: United Kingdom. (2008). [http://ecb.jrc.it/documents/Existing-Chemicals/RISK_ASSESSMENT/ADDENDUM/bisphenola_add_325.pdf JRC.it Updated European Risk Assessment Report: 4,4’-ISOPROPYLIDENEDIPHENOL (BISPHENOL-A)] FINAL APPROVED VERSION AWAITING FOR PUBLICATION. [http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/cef080723.htm EFSA, Press release].</ref> By October 2008, after the [[#Lang study and heart disease|Lang Study]] was published, the EFSA issued a statement concluding that the study provided no grounds to revise the current Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) level for BPA of {{nowrap|0.05 mg/kg}} bodyweight.<ref>[http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1211902145465.htm Europa.eu]</ref>

A 2009 scientific study criticized the European risk assessment processes of endocrine disruptors, including BPA.<ref>{{Cite pmid|19500631}}</ref>

On 22 December 2009, the EU Environment ministers released a statement expressing concerns over recent studies showing adverse effects of exposure to [[endocrine disruptor]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/NewsWord/en/envir/112043.doc|title=Council conclusions on combination effects of chemicals|date=22 December 2009|publisher=Council of The European Union|accessdate=30 December 2009|location=Brussels}}</ref>

In September 2010, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published its latest scientific opinion, based on a "comprehensive evaluation of recent toxicity data [...] concluded that no new study could be identified, which would call for a revision of the current TDI".<ref name="European Food Safety Authority">{{Cite web|url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/scdocs/scdoc/1829.htm|title=Scientific Opinion on Bisphenol A: evaluation of a study investigating its neurodevelopmental toxicity, review of recent scientific literature on its toxicity and advice on the Danish risk assessment of Bisphenol A|date=23 September 2010|publisher=European Food Safety Authority|accessdate=23 September 2010}}</ref> The Panel noted that some studies conducted on developing animals have suggested BPA-related effects of possible toxicological relevance, in particular biochemical changes in brain, immune-modulatory effects and enhanced susceptibility to breast tumours but considered that those studies had several shortcomings so the relevance of these findings for human health could not be assessed.<ref name="European Food Safety Authority"/>

On 25 November 2010, the [[European Commission#Executive power|European Union executive commission]] said it will ban the manufacturing by {{nowrap|1 March 2011}} and ban the marketing and market placement of [[polycarbonate]] [[baby bottle]]s containing the organic compound {{nowrap|bisphenol A}} (BPA) by {{nowrap|1 June 2011}}, according to [[John Dalli]], [[European Commissioner|commissioner]] in charge of health and consumer policy. This is backed by a majority of EU governments.<ref name="rban2011">[http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6AO3MS20101125 EU to ban Bisphenol A in baby bottles in 2011] 101125</ref><ref name="pban2011">[http://www.physorg.com/news/2010-11-europe-baby-bottles-bisphenol-a.html Europe bans baby bottles with Bisphenol-A] 25 November 2010 </ref> The ban was called an over-reaction by Richard Sharpe, of the [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]]'s Human Reproductive Sciences Unit, who said to be unaware of any convincing evidence justifying the measure and criticized it as being done on political, rather than scientific grounds.<ref>{{Cite news |title=EU bans bisphenol A chemical from babies' bottles  |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11843820 |agency=BBC  |date=25 November 2010|quote=I do not know of any convincing evidence that bisphenol A exposure, in the amounts used in polycarbonate bottles, can cause any harm to babies as not only are the amounts so minuscule but they are rapidly broken down in the gut and liver. |work=BBC News}}</ref>

====Denmark====
In May 2009, the Danish parliament passed a resolution to ban the use of BPA in baby bottles, which has not been enacted by April 2010. In March 2010, a temporary ban was declared by the Health Minister.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Politik/2010/03/26/113304.htm|title=Danmark forbyder giftigt stof i sutteflasker|language=danish|accessdate=26 March 2010}}</ref>

====Belgium====
On March 2010, senator [[Philippe Mahoux]] proposed legislation to ban BPA in [[Food contact materials|food contact plastics]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nieuws.be.msn.com/buitenland/artikel.aspx?cp-documentid=152421106|title=Negen op tien zuigflessen zijn gevaarlijk|date=5/03/2010|accessdate=8 March 2010}}</ref>

==== France ====
On 5 February 2010, the French Food Safety Agency (AFSSA) questioned the previous assessments of the health risks of BPA, especially in regard to behavioral effects observed in rat pups following exposure in utero and during the first months of life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.afssa.fr/PM9100B6I0.htm|title=Bisphenol A: AFSSA recommends the development of new assessment methods|date=5 February 2010|accessdate=8 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.afssa.fr/cgi-bin/countdocs.cgi?Documents/MCDA2009sa0270EN.pdf|title=Opinion of the French Food Safety Agency on the critical analysis of the results of a study of the toxicity of bisphenol A on the development of the nervous system together with other recently-published data on its toxic effects|date=29 January 2010|publisher=French Food Safety Agency|accessdate=8 February 2010}}</ref> In April 2010, the AFFSA suggested the adoption of better labels for food products containing BPA.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/2010/04/27/97001-20100427FILWWW00356-afssa-informations-sur-le-bisphenol-a.php|title=Afssa: informations sur le Bisphénol A|date=27 April 2010|work=Le Figaro|language=french|accessdate=7 May 2010}}</ref>

On 24 March 2010, French Senate unanimously approved a proposition of law to ban BPA from baby bottles, although the proposition still depends of [[National Assembly of France|Assembly]] approval.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2010/03/24/les-senateurs-votent-la-suspension-de-la-commercialisation-des-biberons-au-bisphenol-a_1324041_3244.html|title=Les sénateurs votent la suspension de la commercialisation des biberons au Bisphenol A|date=24 March 2010|work=Le Monde |accessdate=24 March 2010}}</ref>

====Germany====
On 19 September 2008, the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung, BfR)  stated that there was no reason to change the current risk assessment for bisphenol&nbsp;A on the basis of the Lang Study.<ref>[http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/216/neue_studien_zu_bisphenol_a_stellen_die_bisherige_risikobewertung_nicht_in_frage.pdf Bund.de] {{de icon}}</ref>

In October 2009, the German environmental organization [[Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland]] requested a ban on BPA for children's products, especially [[pacifiers]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bund.net/nc/bundnet/presse/pressemitteilungen/detail/zurueck/pressemitteilungen/artikel/schnuller-geben-hormonell-wirksames-bisphenol-a-ab-bund-fordert-verbot-der-chemikalie-fuer-babyarti|title=Schnuller geben hormonell wirksames Bisphenol A ab. BUND fordert Verbot der Chemikalie für Babyartikel|language=german|accessdate=15 October 2009}}</ref> and products that make contact with food.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.derwesten.de/nachrichten/wp/2009/10/1/news-135346902/detail.html|title=Chemikalie in Schnullern entdeckt|date=1 October 2009|language=german|accessdate=2 October 2009}}</ref> In response, some manufacturers voluntarily removed the problematic pacifiers from the market.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.medizinauskunft.de/artikel/aktuell/2009/04_11_bisphenol_a.php |date=4 November 2009 |language=German |accessdate=4 November 2009 |title=Bisphenol-A: Kehrtwende |work=MedizinAuskunft}}</ref>

====Netherlands====
On 6 November 2008, the Dutch Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (VWA) stated in a newsletter that baby bottles made from polycarbonate plastic do not release measurable concentrations of bisphenol&nbsp;A and therefore are safe to use.<ref>[http://www.vwa.nl/cdlpub/servlet/CDLServlet?p_file_id=31842 VWA.nl] {{nl icon}}</ref>

====Switzerland====
In February 2009, the Swiss Federal Office for Public Health, based on reports of other health agencies, stated that the intake of bisphenol&nbsp;A from food represents no risk to the consumer, including newborns and infants. However, in the same statement, it advised for proper use of polycarbonate baby bottles and listed alternatives.<ref>[http://www.bag.admin.ch/themen/lebensmittel/04861/06170/index.html?lang=de Admin.ch] {{de icon}}</ref>

====Sweden====
By May 2010, the Swedish Chemicals Agency asked for a BPA ban in baby bottles, but the Swedish Food Safety Authority prefers to await the expected European Food Safety Authority's updated review. The Minister of Environment said to wait for the EFSA review but not for too long.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dagenshandel.se/dh/DagensH.nsf/0/CEEB5E81FEE99BDFC1257720002F04A9|title=Minister kör över Livsmedelsverket|language=swedish|accessdate=13 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=25844&a=100803&l=en&newsdep=25844|title=BioNut researcher on ban of bisphenol A (BPA)|date=10 May 2010|accessdate=13 May 2010}}</ref>
From March 2011 it is prohibited to manufacture babybottles containing bisphenol A and from July 2011 will no longer go to buy them in stores.

====UK====
In December 2009, responding to a letter from a group of seven scientists that urged the UK Government to "adopt a standpoint consistent with the approach taken by other Governments who have ended the use of BPA in food contact products marketed at children",<ref>{{Cite news  | last = Smith | first = Rebecca  | title = Ban chemical linked to cancer in baby bottles: campaigners | newspaper=Telegraph  | date = 1 December 2009  | accessdate=16 February 2010 | url = http://www.nomorebpa.org.uk/news/US_Acts_On_BPA_And_Baby%20_Bottles.php}}</ref> the UK Food Standards Agency reaffirmed, in January 2009, its view that "exposure of UK consumers to BPA from all sources, including food contact materials, was well below levels considered harmful".<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.nomorebpa.org.uk/news/US_Acts_On_BPA_And_Baby%20_Bottles.php | title=US Acts on BPA and Baby Bottles while UK Food Standards Agency dismisses concerns | date=18 January 2009 | publisher=Breast Cancer UK | accessdate=16 February 2010}}</ref>

===Turkey===
As of 10 June 2011, Turkey banned the use of BPA in baby bottles and other PC items produced for babies.<ref>http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2011/06/20110610-8.htm</ref>

===Japan===
Between 1998 and 2003, the canning industry voluntarily replaced their BPA-containing epoxy resin can liners with BPA-free polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in many of their products.  For other products, they switched to a different epoxy lining that yielded much less migration of BPA into food than the previously used resin.  In addition, polycarbonate tableware for school lunches was replaced by BPA-free plastics.  As a result of these changes, Japanese risk assessors have found that virtually no BPA is detectable in canned foods or drinks, and blood levels of BPA in people have declined dramatically (50% in one study).<ref>http://www.ewg.org/node/20938 Bisphenol A: Toxic Plastics Chemical in Canned Food: Companies reduced BPA exposures in Japan, Environmental Working Group, Accessed 08-09-2010</ref>

===United States===
<!-- outdated and too extensive
====April 2008====
As of the release of NTP and Health Canada reports in April, 10 U.S. states, including [[California]],<ref>[http://www.legislature.ca.gov/cgi-bin/port-postquery?bill_number=sb_1713&sess=CUR&house=B&author=migden Bill List]</ref> [[Maryland]],<ref name="WaPo">{{Cite news  | last = Layton  | first = Lyndsey  | title = Studies on Chemical In Plastics Questioned Congress Examines Role Of Industry in Regulation  | newspaper=Washington Post  | pages = A1  | year = 2008  | date = 27 April 2008  | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602126.html}}.</ref>  and [[New Jersey]],<ref>{{Cite news  | title = Momentum Builds to End BPA in Plastics  | newspaper=NewsInferno.com   | date = 22 April 2008 | url = http://www.newsinferno.com/archives/2955}}.</ref> already had legislation pending that would affect the use of BPA. In the wake of these reports, [[U.S. Senator]] [[Charles Schumer]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]–[[New York State|N.Y.]]) introduced legislation that would ban bisphenol&nbsp;A nationally from products for infants.<ref name="WaPo"/> In addition, the U.S. Congress is investigating the [[Weinberg Group]], a chemical industry consulting firm, for its role in downplaying the health effects of bisphenol&nbsp;A and other chemicals,<ref>[http://cspinet.org/integrity/watch/200802111.html#5 Congressional Probe Targets Consulting Group], ''Integrity in Science Watch'', [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]], 02/11/2008.</ref> and the [[Energy and Commerce Committee]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] is investigating the use of BPA in baby products as well as the FDA's approval of the chemical. In asking the FDA to reassess its approval of bisphenol&nbsp;A, committee chairman [[Bart Stupak]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]–[[Michigan|Mich.]]) said "We would expect the FDA to make decisions based on the best available science…Yet the FDA relied on only two industry-funded studies, while other respected authorities used all available data to reach vastly different conclusions." The FDA maintained that bisphenol&nbsp;A is safe and did not recommend that people avoid using products made from it. The [[Consumer Product Safety Commission]] agreed, and its deputy director stressed that use of bisphenol&nbsp;A based plastics has many practical benefits and that "a ban could result in less effective protection of children from head, eye, or bodily injury."<ref name=C&ENews/> FDA then announced it would set up a task force to address these concerns, and in August it released a draft finding<ref>[http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/08/briefing/2008-0038b1_01_02_FDA%20BPA%20Draft%20Assessment.pdf Draft Assessment of Bisphenol A for Use in Food Contact Applications], US Food and Drug Administration, undated.</ref> concurring with its initial position that the chemical is safe. The agency will make its final decision after an advisory panel on the issues is convened in September.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/16/AR2008081600754.html|title=Health Highlights: Aug.&nbsp;16, 2008|date=16 August 2008|work=Washington Post |accessdate=17 August 2008}}</ref>

In response to these events, an [[American Chemistry Council]] (ACC)/BPA Global Group (an industry trade association) spokesman said, “The weight of scientific evidence, as assessed by Health Canada and other agencies around the world, provides reassurance that consumers can continue to safely use products made from bisphenol&nbsp;A."<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2008/04/18/ST2008041803545.html Canada bans BPA plastic from baby bottles], ''The Washington Post'', 19 Apr. 2008 .</ref>  The [[Grocery Manufacturers Association]] also insisted that bisphenol&nbsp;A is safe, and argues that "Data purporting to demonstrate 'low' dose effects on the male reproductive system by BPA have not been successfully replicated and, therefore, are not credible to estimate human health risks and safety in light of the weight of a large body of evidence to the contrary."<ref>{{Cite news   | title = Canada Could Ban Baby Bottles Containing Bisphenol A  | publisher=Environment News Service  | date = 22 April 2008  | url = http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/apr2008/2008-04-22-05.asp  | accessdate = 24 April 2008 }}</ref> A spokesman for the [[tin can]] industry said that without lining cans with bisphenol&nbsp;A based resins, ''[[E. coli]]'' and botulism poisoning would be "rampant."<ref name=C&ENews/>

-->

====September 2008====
In September, the National Toxicology Program finalized their report on bisphenol&nbsp;A, finding "some concern", mid-point of a five-level scale, that infants were at risk from exposure to the chemical.<ref name=NTP08/>

At that time, the FDA reassured consumers that current limits were safe, but convened an outside panel of experts to review the issue. The [[Bisphenol_A#Lang study|Lang study]] was also released that month, and David Melzer, a co-author of the study, presented the results of the study before the FDA panel.<ref name="WaPoDos">{{Cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2008/09/16/ST2008091601215.html?sid=ST2008091601215&s_pos=list|title=Study Links Chemical BPA to Health Problems|last=Layton|first=Lindsey|date=16 September 2008|work=Washington Post |pages=A03|accessdate=17 September 2008}}</ref>

The editorial accompanying the Lang study's publication in ''JAMA'' criticized the FDA's assessment of bisphenol&nbsp;A: "A fundamental problem is that the current ADI [acceptable daily intake] for BPA is based on experiments conducted in the early 1980s using outdated methods (only very high doses were tested) and insensitive assays. More recent findings from independent scientists were rejected by the FDA, apparently because those investigators did not follow the outdated testing guidelines for environmental chemicals, whereas studies using the outdated, insensitive assays (predominantly involving studies funded by the chemical industry) are given more weight in arriving at the conclusion that BPA is not harmful at current exposure levels."<ref name=JAMAVS/>

<!--irrelevant
The [[Union of Concerned Scientists]] similarly criticized the agency saying, "We're concerned that the FDA is basing its conclusion on two studies while downplaying the results of hundreds of other studies.... This appears to be a case of cherry-picking data with potentially high cost to human health."--><!-- unbalanced<ref name="WaPoDos"/> [[Diana Zuckerman]], president of the [[National Research Center for Women and Families]], also criticized the FDA, saying, in her testimony at the FDA's public meeting on the draft assessment of bisphenol&nbsp;A for use in food contact applications, that "At the very least, the FDA should require a prominent warning on products made with BPA".<ref>Szabo, Liz. "[http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-09-16-bpa-fda_N.htm Scientists, FDA face off over safety of BPA in consumer plastics]". ''USA Today''. 17 September 2008. Retrieved 29 October 2008</ref><ref> {{Cite news| title = Statement of Diana Zuckerman, PhD At the FDA Public Meeting on its Draft Assessment of Bisphenol A for Use in Food Contact Applications| url = http://www.center4research.org/BPA.html| accessdate = 15 July 2009 |date=16 September 2008| author=[[National Research Center for Women and Families]]}}</ref> -->
<!--irrelevant
In contrast, the American Chemistry Council, the manufacturing industry's lobby group, was skeptical of the latest study.<ref name="WaPoDos"/>
-->

====March 2009====
Sunoco, a producer of gasoline and chemicals, is now refusing to sell the chemical to companies for use in food and water containers for children younger than 3, saying it can't be certain of the compound's safety. Sunoco plans to require its customers to guarantee that the chemical will not be used in children's food products.<ref>{{Cite news | author=Matthew Perrone |title=Sunoco restricts sales of chemical used in bottles |publisher=Associated Press |date=12 March 2009 |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gOPl1ZUc7b5Zxrt5oXVoyFC24GTQD96SMQH80 |accessdate=13 March 2009}}</ref>

The six largest US companies which commercialize baby bottles decided to stop using bisphenol&nbsp;A in their products.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/05/AR2009030503285.html No BPA For Baby Bottles In U.S.] 6 Makers Announce Decision on Chemical - By Lyndsey Layton, 6 March 2009; Page A06, Washington Post</ref>
[[Suffolk County]], New York banned baby beverage containers made with bisphenol&nbsp;A.<ref>[http://www.northshoreoflongisland.com/Articles-i-2009-03-05-78665.112114-sub_County_bans_baby_bottle_plastic_with_BPA.html County bans baby bottle plastic with BPA] By Karen Forman, 5 March 2009, northshoreoflongisland.com</ref>

On 13 March, leaders from the House and Senate proposed legislation to ban bisphenol&nbsp;A.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/13/AR2009031303507.html Bills Would Ban BPA From Food and Drink Containers], [[Milwaukee Journal Sentinel]], 14 March 2009; Page A04, [[Washington Post]]</ref>

In the same month, Rochelle Tyl, author of two studies used by FDA to assert BPA safety in August 2008, said those studies didn't claim that BPA is safe because they weren't designed to cover all aspects of the chemical's effects.<ref>[http://www.contracostatimes.com/nationandworld/ci_12123743 Scientists reject FDA assertion of BPA's safety]</ref>

====May 2009====
The first US jurisdictions to pass regulations limiting or banning BPA were [[Minnesota]] and [[Chicago]]. Minnesota's regulation takes effect in 2010, "manufacturers of ... children's products containing BPA may not sell them in the state after 1 Jan. 2010. The ban extends to all retailers in the state a year later." The products impacted are known as sippy cups and baby bottles.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.startribune.com/lifestyle/health/44586267.html|title=State bans chemical in baby bottles|last=Sternberg|first=Bob von|date=8 May 2009|work=Star Tribune|accessdate=11 July 2009}}</ref> The City of Chicago adopted a similar ban shortly thereafter. Coverage of Chicago's ban in the news showed a relentless opposition by the industry. A Chicago Tribune article noted an up-hill battle while passing legislation, "[industry officials] used FDA’s position on the issue when they tried to block the city’s measure."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/2009/may/14/local/chi-chicago-bpa-baby-bottles-14may14|title=Chicago BPA ban: Chicago bans sale of baby bottles, sippy cups with dangerous chemical ... linked to diabetes, cancer and other illnesses|date=14 May 2009|accessdate=4 August 2009 | work=Chicago Tribune}}</ref>

In May 2009, the Washington Post accused the manufacturers of food and beverage containers and some of their biggest customers of trying to devise a public relations and lobbying strategy to block government BPA bans. Lyndsey Layton, from the Washington Post, criticized the FDA noting that, "Despite more than 100 published studies by government scientists and university laboratories that have raised health concerns about the chemical, the Food and Drug Administration has deemed it safe largely because of two studies, both funded by a chemical industry trade group".<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/30/AR2009053002121.html Strategy Being Devised To Protect Use of BPA]</ref>

====June 2009====
In June 2009, the FDA announced the decision to reconsider the BPA safety levels.<ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124405286248681991.html FDA to Revisit Decision on Safety of BPA]</ref>

[[Connecticut]] was the first US state to ban bisphenol&nbsp;A from infant formula and baby food containers, as well from any reusable food or beverage container.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehour.com/story/470418|title=Connecticut first state to ban BPA |last=Bodach|first=Jill|date=5 June 2009|work=The Hour|publisher=The Hour Publishing Co.|accessdate=9 September 2009}}</ref>

====July 2009====
The California Environmental Protection Agency's Developmental and Reproductive Toxicant Identification Committee unanimously voted against placing Bisphenol&nbsp;A on the state's list of chemicals that are believed to cause reproductive harm. The panel, although concerned over the growing scientific research showing BPA's reproductive harm in animals, found that there was insufficient data of the effects in humans.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.latimes.com/business/nationworld/wire/sns-ap-us-california-bpa,0,3478515.story|title=Calif. regulators will not list Bisphenol A under Prop. 65, call for more study|accessdate=19 July 2009}} {{Dead link|date=August 2010|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> Critics point out that the same panel failed to add [[second-hand smoke]] to the list until 2006, and only one chemical was added to the list in the last three years.<ref>[http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/greenspace/2009/07/bisphenol-a-california.html California won't warn public about bisphenol A]</ref>

====August 2009====
On 3 August, Massachusetts' Department of Public Health advised mothers to take certain actions to prevent possible health impact in children. Mothers with children up to two years old were advised to limit exposure by avoiding products that might contain BPA, such as plastic drinking bottles and other plastic materials with [[International Universal Recycling Codes|recycling codes]] of 7 or 3.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mass.gov/?pageID=eohhs2pressrelease&L=4&L0=Home&L1=Government&L2=Departments+and+Divisions&L3=Department+of+Public+Health&sid=Eeohhs2&b=pressrelease&f=090803_bpa_advisory&csid=Eeohhs2|title=Public Health Advisory Regarding Bisphenol A (BPA)|publisher=Commonwealth of Massachusetts|accessdate=4 August 2009}}</ref>

The ''[[Milwaukee Journal Sentinel]]'', as part of an ongoing investigative series into BPA and its effects, revealed plans by the [[Society of the Plastics Industry]] to execute a major public relations blitz to promote BPA, including plans to attack and discredit those who report or comment negatively on the monomer and its effects.<ref>[http://www.jsonline.com/watchdog/watchdogreports/54195297.html "BPA industry fights back"], from ''Milwaukee Journal Sentinel'', 23 August 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.jsonline.com/watchdog/watchdogreports/54195302.html "'Watchdog' advocates for BPA"], from ''Milwaukee Journal Sentinel'', 23 August 2009</ref>

====September 2009====
On 29 September, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency‎|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] announced that it is evaluating BPA, and another five chemicals, for action plan development.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/ecactionpln.html|title=Existing Chemical Action Plans|accessdate=1 October 2009}}</ref>

====October 2009====
On 28 October, the [[National Institutes of Health|NIH]] announced $30,000,000 in [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009|stimulus]] grants to study the health effects of BPA. This money is expected to result in many [[peer-reviewed]] publications.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Sarewitz D |title=World view: A tale of two sciences |journal=Nature |volume=462 |issue=7273 |pages=566 |year=2009 |month=December |pmid=19956236 |doi=10.1038/462566a}}</ref>

====November 2009====
The ''[[Consumer Reports]]'' magazine published an analysis of BPA content in some canned foods and beverages, where in specific cases the content of a single can of food could exceed the current FDA Cumulative Exposure Daily Intake.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine-archive/december-2009/food/bpa/overview/bisphenol-a-ov.htm|title=Concern over canned foods |date=December 2009|work=[[Consumer Reports]]|accessdate=4 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.foodmag.com.au/Article/Significant-bisphenol-A-levels-found-in-canned-food/504393.aspx|title=Significant bisphenol A levels found in canned food |date=4 November 2009|accessdate=4 November 2009}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

====January 2010====
On 15 January, the FDA expressed "some concern", the middle level in the scale of concerns, about the potential effects of BPA on the brain, behavior, and prostate gland in fetuses, infants, and young children, and announced it was taking reasonable steps to reduce human exposure to BPA in the food supply. However, the FDA is not recommending that families change the use of infant formula or foods, as it sees the benefit of a stable source of good nutrition as outweighing the potential risk from BPA exposure.<ref name="U.S. Food and Drug Administration"/>

On the same date, the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services released information to help parents to reduce children's BPA exposure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/|title=Bisphenol A (BPA) Information for Parents|date=15 January 2010|publisher=U.S. Department of Health & Human Services|accessdate=15 January 2010}}</ref>

====February 2010====
According to ''The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel'', which supports a BPA ban, after lobbyists for the chemical industry met with administration officials, the EPA delayed BPA regulation and did not include the chemical in an action plan released 30 December 2009.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.jsonline.com/watchdog/watchdogreports/84321857.html|title=Regulator waffles on bisphenol A|last=Kissinger |first=Meg|date=14 February 2010|work=Journal Sentinel|accessdate=17 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2010/02/14/EPA-delays-action-on-suspect-chemical/UPI-37321266190180/|title=EPA delays action on suspect chemical|date=14 February 2010|publisher=United Press International|accessdate=17 February 2010}}</ref>

Many US states are considering some sort of BPA ban.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/greenhouse/post/2010/02/bans-sought-for-chemical-bpa-in-baby-toddler-products/1|title=Bans sought for chemical BPA in baby, toddler products|last=Koch|first=Wendy|date=16 February 2010|work=USA Today|accessdate=17 February 2010}}</ref>

====March 2010====
On 29 March, the EPA declared BPA a "chemical of concern".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/d0cf6618525a9efb85257359003fb69d/78110048d7f696d1852576f50054241a!OpenDocument|title=EPA to Scrutinize Environmental Impact of Bisphenol A |date=29 March 2010|publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="actionplan">{{Cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/bpa.html|title=Bisphenol A (BPA) Action Plan Summary|publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref>

====April 2010====
The 2008–2009 Annual Report of the President’s Cancer Panel declared: "because of the long latency period of many cancers, the available evidence argues for a precautionary approach to these diverse chemicals, which include (...) bisphenol&nbsp;A"<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://deainfo.nci.nih.gov/advisory/pcp/pcp08-09rpt/PCP_Report_08-09_508.pdf|title=Annual Report for 2008-2009|last=Reuben|first=Suzanne H. |date=April 2010|publisher=National Cancer Institute|accessdate=6 May 2010}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

Meanwhile, {{as of|lc=on|2011|4}}, [[General Mills]] has announced that it has found a BPA-free alternative can liner that apparently works even with tomatoes, a highly acidic product that has long baffled the industry in terms of finding a suitable substitute. General Mills says that with the next tomato harvest, it will begin using the BPA-free alternative in tomato products sold by its organic foods subsidiary [[Muir Glen]].<ref>http://www.greenbiz.com/news/2010/04/19/general-mills-pull-bpa-organic-tomato-cans General Mills to Pull BPA from Organic Tomato Cans, GreenerDesign, Accessed 08-09-2010</ref> Thus far, there has been no word on whether General Mills will use BPA-free alternatives on any of its other canned products.

====February 2011====

In August 2010, the Maine Board of Environmental Protection voted unanimously to ban the sale of baby bottles and other reusable food and beverage containers made with bisphenol A as of January 2012.<ref>http://new.bangordailynews.com/2010/06/18/politics/maine-board-weighs-bpa-bottle-ban/</ref> In February 2011, the newly elected governor of Maine, [[Paul LePage]], gained national attention when he spoke on a local TV news show saying he hoped to repeal the ban because, "There hasn't been any science that identifies that there is a problem” and added: "The only thing that I've heard is if you take a plastic bottle and put it in the microwave and you heat it up, it gives off a chemical similar to estrogen. So the worst case is some women may have little beards."<ref>http://new.bangordailynews.com/2011/02/22/politics/gov-lepage-dismisses-dangers-of-bpa/</ref><ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/23/maine-gov-paul-lepage-on-_n_827208.html</ref>  In April, the Maine legislature passed a bill to ban the use of  BPA  in baby bottles, sippy cups, and other reusable food and beverage containers, effective January 1, 2012. Governor LePage refused to sign the bill.<ref>http://www.good-chemistry.org/?p=2270</ref>

==See also==
* [[Food contact materials]]
* [[Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether]] (BADGE)
* [[Bisphenol AF]] (BPAF)
* [[Thermal paper]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* {{Cite journal |last= Borrell|first= Brendan |authorlink= |date= 21 April|year=2010|title= Toxicology: The big test for bisphenol A |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume= 464|series= |issue= 7292|pages= 1122–1124 |pmid= 20414285|doi= 10.1038/4641122a |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100421/full/4641122a.html|accessdate= 21 April 2010 |quote= }}
* {{Cite doi|10.2105/AJPH.2008.159228}}
* [http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=plastic-not-fantastic-with-bisphenol-a Plastic Not Fantastic with Bisphenol A (www.scientificamerican.com)]
* [http://www.fda.gov/oc/opacom/hottopics/bpa.html US FDA statement on bisphenol A from 2008]
<!-- unbalanced, no other advocate website is listed * [http://www.bisphenol-a.org Plastics Industry Bisphenol A information site] -->
<!-- old * [http://www.eeletter.com/bpareport.pdf An ''Endocrine/Estrogen Letter'' special Report on BPA] -->
<!-- old * {{Cite journal |author=Gross L |title=The Toxic Origins of Disease |journal=PLoS Biol. |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=e193 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17594178 |pmc=1896186 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0050193 |url=http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0050193}} - an essay examining some of the evidence and effects.-->
* {{Cite journal|last=Myers|first=John Peterson|coauthors=''et al.''|date=March 2009|title=Why Public Health Agencies Cannot Depend on Good Laboratory Practices as a Criterion for Selecting Data: The Case of Bisphenol A|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=17|issue=3|pages=309–315|url=http://www.ehponline.org/members/2008/0800173/0800173.html|pmid=19337501|pmc=2661896|doi=10.1289/ehp.0800173}}
* [http://www.economist.com/daily/columns/techview/displayStory.cfm?story_id=11991291 Hazard in a bottle] Attempt to regulate BPA in California defeated (from ''The Economist'')
* [http://www.bpafreebottles.org/ Bisphenol-A News & Products] News commentary on BPA Containing Products
<!-- * [http://gforceproducts.com/2009/07/30/health-canada-scientists-find-bpa-free-bottles-leach-chemicals/ News Story about Canadian Study on BPA Free Marketed Bottles not being BPA Free] -->
* {{Cite doi|10.1016/j.reprotox.2009.06.014}}
* [http://www.mass.gov/Eeohhs2/docs/dph/environmental/exposure/bisphenol_a_brochure.pdf How to Protect Your Baby from BPA (Bisphenol A)]
* {{Cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/22/AR2010022204830.html|title=Alternatives to BPA containers not easy for U.S. foodmakers to find|last=Layton|first=Lyndsey|date=23 February 2010|work=Washington Post|accessdate=23 February 2010}}
* {{Cite news|url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/scdocs/scdoc/1829.htm|title=European Food Safety Authority Scientific Opinion on Bisphenol A|date=23 September 2010}}
* [http://chemsub.online.fr/name/bisphenol_a.html ChemSub Online : Bisphenol A.]

{{HealthIssuesOfPlastics}}

[[Category:Bisphenols]]
[[Category:Plasticizers]]
[[Category:Endocrine disruptors]]
[[Category:Russian inventions]]

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