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{{STEMI resident survival guide}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{AL}}; {{Rim}}


{{WikiDoc CMG}}; {{AE}} {{AL}}
==Overview==
[[ST elevation myocardial infarction]] ([[STEMI]]) is a syndrome characterized by the presence of symptoms of [[myocardial ischemia]] associated with persistent [[ST elevation]] on [[electrocardiogram]] and elevated [[cardiac enzymes]].  The management of [[STEMI]] should be initiated without delay and the following timelines should be minimized (the 4 D's):
===Door to Data===
If a patient presents with [[chest discomfort]], an [[electrocardiogram]] must be obtained immediately and no later than 5-10 minutes after arrival.  In the patient with [[chest discomfort]], an [[electrocardiogram]] should be obtained prior to obtaining insurance / payment information.


==Definition==
===Data to Decision===
[[ST elevation myocardial infarction]] ([[STEMI]]) is a syndrome defined by symptoms of [[myocardial ischemia]] (sudden [[chest pain]] and pressure, [[shortness of breath]]) associated with persistent [[ECG]] [[ST elevation]] and subsequent release of [[cardiac enzymes]].
If the [[electrocardiogram]] shows [[ST segment elevation]], [[ST segment depression]] consistent with [[posterior MI]], or a new [[left bundle branch block]], a decision must be made within 5 to 10 minutes as to whether to administer a [[fibrinolytic agent]] or to proceed to [[primary angioplasty]].
 
===Decision to Drug or Device===
Once a decision is made to administer a [[fibrinolytic agent]] or to proceed to [[primary angioplasty]] this should be carried out within 30 minutes.


==Causes==
==Causes==
===Life Threatening Causes===
===Life Threatening Causes===
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated. [[STEMI]] is a life-threatening condition and must be treated as such irrespective of the causes.
[[STEMI]] is a life-threatening condition and must be treated as such irrespective of the underlying cause.


===Common Causes===
===Common Causes===
* Rupture of high-risk plaque in the [[coronary arteries]]
* [[Plaque rupture]]
* [[thrombus|Occlusive Thrombus]]
* [[Takotsubo cardiomyopathy]] (also known as [[broken heart syndrome]] or [[stress cardiomyopathy]])
* [[Aortic dissection]] with propagation to the [[right coronary artery]]
* [[Cocaine]]
 
==Pre-Hospital Care==
Pre-hospital care can begin in the ambulance by [[Emergency Medical Services]] (EMS) personnel and it can decrease the delay in the management of [[STEMI]] patients.  In the United States, volunteers and fire fighters are permitted to initiate emergency care prior to the arrival of highly trained [[paramedics]] by beginning [[CPR]] and if adequately trained, can defibrillate the patient using an [[Defibrillation|automatic external defibrillator]].  Early access to [[EMS]] is promoted by a 9-1-1 system.
 
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{{familytree  | A01 | | |A01= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 30em; padding:1em;"> '''Prehospital Care'''<br>
❑ Check the [[vital signs]] <br>
❑ Perform [[ECG|12 lead ECG]] and transmit it to the receiving hospital<br>
❑ Establish large bore [[Intravenous therapy|IV access]]<br>
❑ Administer [[oxygen]]<br>
❑ Administer medications (depending on the level of training)
:❑ [[Aspirin|Non-enteric coated aspirin]]
:❑ [[Nitroglycerin|Sublingual nitroglycerin]] if an [[RV infarct]] and / or [[hypotension]] are not present
:❑ In so far as the risk of emergency [[CABG|coronary artery bypass surgery]] is <u><</u>1%, a [[thienopyridine]] such as [[Prasugrel]], [[Ticagrelor]] or [[Clopidogrel]] can be administered
:❑ [[Unfractionated heparin]]
:❑ [[Glycoprotein IIb IIIa inhibitors]]
:❑ [[Fibrinolytic therapy]] (especially in rural areas)
❑ Activate the cardiac cath team in the hospital<br>
❑ [[Resuscitation]] in case of [[cardiac arrest]]<br>
:❑ [[CPR]]
:❑ [[Defibrillation|Automated defibrillator]]</div> }}
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==FIRE: Focused Initial Rapid Evaluation==
A Focused Initial Rapid Evaluation (FIRE) should be performed to identify patients in need of immediate intervention.<ref name="O'GaraKushner2013">{{cite journal|last1=O'Gara|first1=Patrick T.|last2=Kushner|first2=Frederick G.|last3=Ascheim|first3=Deborah D.|last4=Casey|first4=Donald E.|last5=Chung|first5=Mina K.|last6=de Lemos|first6=James A.|last7=Ettinger|first7=Steven M.|last8=Fang|first8=James C.|last9=Fesmire|first9=Francis M.|last10=Franklin|first10=Barry A.|last11=Granger|first11=Christopher B.|last12=Krumholz|first12=Harlan M.|last13=Linderbaum|first13=Jane A.|last14=Morrow|first14=David A.|last15=Newby|first15=L. Kristin|last16=Ornato|first16=Joseph P.|last17=Ou|first17=Narith|last18=Radford|first18=Martha J.|last19=Tamis-Holland|first19=Jacqueline E.|last20=Tommaso|first20=Carl L.|last21=Tracy|first21=Cynthia M.|last22=Woo|first22=Y. Joseph|last23=Zhao|first23=David X.|title=2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=61|issue=4|year=2013|pages=e78–e140|issn=07351097|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2012.11.019}}</ref>
 
<span style="font-size:85%"> '''Abbreviations:'''
'''LBBB:''' [[left bundle branch block]]; '''CABG:''' [[coronary artery bypass graft]]; '''COPD:''' [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]; '''DVT:''' [[deep vein thrombosis]]; '''ECG:''' [[electrocardiography]]; '''GP IIb IIIa:''' [[glycoprotein IIb IIIa inhibitor|glycoprotein IIb IIIa]]; '''LAD:''' [[left anterior descending]]; '''MI:''' [[myocardial infarction]]; '''PCI:''' [[percutaneous coronary intervention]]; '''SC:''' [[subcutaneous injection]]; '''STEMI:''' [[ST elevation myocardial infarction]]</span>


==Management==
Boxes in red signify that an urgent management is needed.
===Diagnostic Approach===
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF;  | | | | A00 | | A00=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 35em; padding:1em;"> '''Identify cardinal findings of STEMI:''' <br>
Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the diagnostic approach to [[STEMI]] based on the 2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction<ref name="O'GaraKushner2013">{{cite journal|last1=O'Gara|first1=Patrick T.|last2=Kushner|first2=Frederick G.|last3=Ascheim|first3=Deborah D.|last4=Casey|first4=Donald E.|last5=Chung|first5=Mina K.|last6=de Lemos|first6=James A.|last7=Ettinger|first7=Steven M.|last8=Fang|first8=James C.|last9=Fesmire|first9=Francis M.|last10=Franklin|first10=Barry A.|last11=Granger|first11=Christopher B.|last12=Krumholz|first12=Harlan M.|last13=Linderbaum|first13=Jane A.|last14=Morrow|first14=David A.|last15=Newby|first15=L. Kristin|last16=Ornato|first16=Joseph P.|last17=Ou|first17=Narith|last18=Radford|first18=Martha J.|last19=Tamis-Holland|first19=Jacqueline E.|last20=Tommaso|first20=Carl L.|last21=Tracy|first21=Cynthia M.|last22=Woo|first22=Y. Joseph|last23=Zhao|first23=David X.|title=2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=61|issue=4|year=2013|pages=e78–e140|issn=07351097|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2012.11.019}}</ref>
❑ '''[[Chest pain|<span style="color:white;"> Chest pain</span>]] or [[chest discomfort|<span style="color:white;">chest discomfort</span>]]''' <br>
:❑ Sudden onset
:❑ Sensation of heaviness, tightness, pressure, or squeezing
:❑ Duration> 20 minutes <br>
:❑ Radiation to the left arm, jaw, neck, right arm, back or [[epigastrium|<span style="color:white;">epigastrium</span>]]
:❑ No relief with medications<br>
:❑ No relief with rest <br>
:❑ Worse with time <br>
:❑ Worse with exertion<br>
:❑ Associated symptoms of [[palpitations|<span style="color:white;">palpitations</span>]], [[nausea|<span style="color:white;">nausea</span>]], [[vomiting|<span style="color:white;">vomiting</span>]] and [[sweating|<span style="color:white;">sweating</span>]]
❑ '''Characteristic [[ECG|<span style="color:white;">ECG</span>]] changes consistent with [[STEMI|<span style="color:white;">STEMI</span>]]'''
:❑ [[ST elevation|<span style="color:white;">ST elevation</span>]] in at least 2 contiguous leads of 2 mm (0.2 mV) in men or 1.5 mm (0.15 mV) in women in leads V2–V3 and/or of 1 mm (0.1mV) in other contiguous chest leads or the limb leads
:❑ [[ST depression|<span style="color:white;">ST depression</span>]] in at least two precordial leads V1-V4 (suggestive of [[posterior myocardial infarction|<span style="color:white;">posterior MI</span>]])
:❑ [[ST depression|<span style="color:white;">ST depression</span>]] in several leads plus [[ST elevation|<span style="color:white;">ST elevation</span>]] in lead aVR (suggestive of occlusion of the [[left main|<span style="color:white;">left main</span>]] or proximal [[LAD|<span style="color:white;">LAD</span>]] artery)
:❑ New [[LBBB|<span style="color:white;">LBBB</span>]]<br>
''Click [[STEMI resident survival guide#Gallery|<span style="color:white;">here </span>]] for the gallery of ECG examples below.''
❑ '''Increase in [[troponin|<span style="color:white;">troponin</span>]] and / or [[CKMB|<span style="color:white;">CK MB </span>]]'''</div>}}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF;  | | | | G02 | G02= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 35em; padding:1em;"> '''Rule out life threatening alternative diagnoses:'''<br>
❑ [[Aortic dissection|<span style="color:white;">Aortic dissection</span>]] <br> (suggestive findings: [[back pain|<span style="color:white;">back pain</span>]], [[interscapular pain|<span style="color:white;">interscapular pain</span>]], [[aortic regurgitation|<span style="color:white;">aortic regurgitation</span>]], [[pulsus paradoxus|<span style="color:white;">pulsus paradoxus</span>]], [[blood pressure|<span style="color:white;">blood pressure</span>]] discrepancy between the arms) <br>
❑ [[Pulmonary embolism|<span style="color:white;">Pulmonary embolism</span>]] <br> (suggestive findings: acute onset of [[dyspnea|<span style="color:white;">dyspnea</span>]], [[tachypnea|<span style="color:white;">tachypnea</span>]], [[hemoptysis|<span style="color:white;">hemoptysis</span>]], previous [[DVT|<span style="color:white;">DVT</span>]]) <br>
❑ [[Cardiac tamponade|<span style="color:white;">Cardiac tamponade</span>]] <br> (suggestive findings: [[hypotension|<span style="color:white;">hypotension</span>]], [[jugular venous distention|<span style="color:white;">jugular venous distention</span>]], [[muffled heart sounds|<span style="color:white;">muffled heart sounds</span>]], [[pulsus paradoxus|<span style="color:white;">pulsus paradoxus</span>]])<br>
❑ [[Tension pneumothorax|<span style="color:white;">Tension pneumothorax</span>]] <br> (suggestive findings: sudden [[dyspnea|<span style="color:white;">dyspnea</span>]], [[tachycardia|<span style="color:white;">tachycardia</span>]], [[trauma|<span style="color:white;">chest trauma</span>]], unilateral absence of [[breath sounds|<span style="color:white;">breath sound</span>]])<br>
❑ [[Esophageal rupture|<span style="color:white;">Esophageal rupture</span>]] <br> (suggestive findings: [[vomiting|<span style="color:white;">vomiting</span>]], [[subcutaneous emphysema|<span style="color:white;">subcutaneous emphysema</span>]])</div>}}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF;  | | | | G01 | G01= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 35em; padding:1em;"> '''Assess appropriateness of patients for perfusion therapy:'''
❑ [[STEMI resident survival guide#Contraindications to Fibrinolytic Therapy|<span style="color:white;">Contraindications to fibrinolytics</span>]] [[STEMI resident survival guide#Contraindications to Fibrinolytic Therapy|<span style="color:white;">(click here for the complete list shown below)</span>]] <br>
❑ Assess the [[femoral pulse|<span style="color:white;">femoral pulses</span>]] (strength, [[bruit|<span style="color:white;">bruit</span>]]) <br>
❑ [[Pericarditis resident survival guide|<span style="color:white;">Pericarditis</span>]] (suggestive finding: [[Pericarditis resident survival guide|<span style="color:white;">pericardial friction rub</span>]])<br> </div> }}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF;  | | | | G01 | G01= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 35em; padding:1em;"> '''Consider [[RVMI|<span style="color:white;">right ventricular MI</span>]] in case of:'''
❑ [[Hypotension|<span style="color:white;">Hypotension</span>]]<br>
❑ Elevated [[jugular venous pressure|<span style="color:white;">jugular venous pressure</span>]]<br>
❑ Clear lung fields<br>
❑ [[Peripheral edema|<span style="color:white;">Peripheral edema</span>]] <br>
❑ [[ECG|<span style="color:white;">ECG</span>]] changes suggestive of an [[inferior MI|<span style="color:white;">inferior MI</span>]] <br>
:❑ [[ST elevation|<span style="color:white;">ST elevation</span>]] in leads [[Electrocardiogram#Limb Leads|<span style="color:white;">II</span>]], [[Electrocardiogram#Limb Leads|<span style="color:white;">III</span>]] and [[Electrocardiogram#Limb Leads|<span style="color:white;">aVF</span>]] </div>}}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF;  | | | | H01 | H01= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 35em; padding:1em;">'''Order a right sided ECG in all patients with [[ST elevation|<span style="color:white;">ST elevation</span>]] in leads [[Electrocardiogram#Limb Leads|<span style="color:white;">II</span>]], [[Electrocardiogram#Limb Leads|<span style="color:white;">III</span>]] and [[Electrocardiogram#Limb Leads|<span style="color:white;">aVF</span>]]:''' <br>
❑ Clearly label the [[ECG|<span style="color:white;">ECG</span>]] as right sided <br>
❑ [[ST elevation|<span style="color:white;">ST elevation</span>]] of >1 mm in lead V4R suggests a [[right ventricular MI|<span style="color:white;">right ventricular MI</span>]]
<br><br>
'''[[Right ventricular myocardial infarction resident survival guide|<span style="color:white;">Click here for right ventricular myocardial infarction resident survival guide</span>]]'''</div>}}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF;  | | | | I01 | | | I01= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 35em; padding:1em;">'''Check for hypoperfusion and [[left ventricular failure|<span style="color:white;">left ventricular failure </span>]]:'''<br>
❑ [[Hypotension|<span style="color:white;">Hypotension</span>]] <br>
❑ [[Tachycardia|<span style="color:white;">Tachycardia</span>]] <br>
❑ [[Cyanosis|<span style="color:white;">Cyanotic skin and nail bed</span>]] <br>
❑ [[Clammy skin|<span style="color:white;">Cold skin</span>]] <br>
❑ [[Skin mottling|<span style="color:white;">Skin mottling</span>]] <br>
❑ Patient lies still <br>
❑ [[Confusion|<span style="color:white;">Confusion</span>]] or [[disorientation|<span style="color:white;">disorientation</span>]]
<br><br>
'''[[Cardiogenic shock resident survival guide|<span style="color:white;">Click here for cardiogenic shock resident survival guide</span>]]'''</div>}}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF;  | | | | A01 | | | | | A01= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 25em; padding:1em;">'''Begin initial treatment:'''<br>  ❑ Administer 162 - 325 mg of non enteric [[aspirin|<span style="color:white;">aspirin</span>]]
:❑ Orally, crushed or chewed, OR
:❑ Intravenously
❑ Administer 2-4 L/min [[oxygen|<span style="color:white;">oxygen</span>]] via nasal cannula when saturation <90%
:❑ Caution in [[COPD|<span style="color:white;">COPD</span>]] patients: maintain an oxygen saturation between 88% and 92%
❑ Administer [[beta-blockers|<span style="color:white;">beta-blockers</span>]] (unless contraindicated) and titrate to the [[heart rate|<span style="color:white;">heart rate</span>]] and [[blood pressure|<span style="color:white;">blood pressure </span>]]<br>
<span style="font-size:85%;">Contraindicated in [[heart failure|<span style="color:white;">heart failure </span>]], [[AV block |<span style="color:white;">prolonged or high degree AV block </span>]], [[reactive airway disease|<span style="color:white;">reactive airway disease </span>]], high risk of [[cardiogenic shock|<span style="color:white;">cardiogenic shock </span>]] and low [[cardiac output|<span style="color:white;">cardiac output</span>]] state</span> <br>
:❑ [[Metoprolol|<span style="color:white;">Metoprolol</span>]] IV, 5 mg every 5 min, up to 3 doses
:❑ [[Carvedilol|<span style="color:white;">Carvedilol</span>]] IV, 25 mg, two times a day
❑ Administer sublingual [[nitroglycerin|<span style="color:white;">nitroglycerin</span>]] 0.4 mg every 5 minutes for a total of 3 doses<br>
<span style="font-size:85%;">Contraindicated in suspected [[RVMI|<span style="color:white;">right ventricular MI </span>]], recent use of [[phosphodiesterase inhibitors|<span style="color:white;">phosphodiesterase inhibitors </span>]], decreased [[blood pressure|<span style="color:white;">blood pressure </span>]] 30 mmHg below baseline</span> <br>
❑ Administer IV [[morphine|<span style="color:white;">morphine</span>]] if needed
:❑ Initial dose 4-8 mg
:❑ 2-8 mg every 5 to 15 minutes, as needed <br>
❑ Administer 80 mg [[atorvastatin|<span style="color:white;">atorvastatin</span>]] <br>
❑ Monitor with a 12-lead [[ECG|<span style="color:white;">ECG</span>]] all the time
</div>}}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF; | | | | B01 | | | | | | B01=<div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 25em; padding:1em;">'''Is PCI available?''' </div>}}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF; | C01 | | | | C02 | | | C01=<div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 25em; padding:1em;">'''YES''' </div>| C02= <div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 25em; padding:1em;">'''NO''' </div> }}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF; | |!| | | | | C00 | | C00= '''Is first medical contact to device ≤ 120 min?''' }}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF; | |!| | | C03 | | C04 | C03= '''NO''' | C04= '''YES'''}}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF; | D01 | | D02 | | D03 | |D01=<div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 25em; padding:1em;">❑  '''[[Primary PCI|<span style="color:white;">Primary PCI</span>]] within 90 minutes''' <br></div>
| D02= <div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 25em; padding:1em;">❑ '''[[Fibrinolytic therapy|<span style="color:white;">Fibrinolytic therapy</span>]] within 30 min''' </div>
| D03= <div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 15em; padding:1em;">❑ '''Transfer for [[primary PCI|<span style="color:white;">primary PCI </span>]]''' </div>
}}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF; | E01 | | E02 | E01= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 25em; padding:1em;">'''Confirm that the patient has one of the following indications:'''<br>
❑ Symptoms of [[ischemia|<span style="color:white;">ischemia</span>]] <12 hours ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class I, level of evidence A</span>]]) <br>
❑ Symptoms of [[ischemia|<span style="color:white;">ischemia</span>]] <12 hours and [[STEMI resident survival guide#Contraindications to Fibrinolytic Therapy|<span style="color:white;">contraindications to fibrinolytics</span>]] irrespective of time delay ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class I, level of evidence B</span>]])<br>
❑ [[Cardiogenic shock|<span style="color:white;">Cardiogenic shock</span>]] irrespective of time delay ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class I, level of evidence B</span>]])<br>
❑ [[Heart failure|<span style="color:white;">Heart failure</span>]] irrespective of time delay ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class I, level of evidence B</span>]]) <br>
❑ Ongoing [[ischemia|<span style="color:white;">ischemia</span>]] 12-24 hours following onset ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class IIa, level of evidence B</span>]])<br></div>
| E02 =<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 25em; padding:1em;"> ❑ '''Confirm that the patient has one of the following indications:'''<br>
:❑ Symptoms of [[ischemia|<span style="color:white;">ischemia</span>]] <12 hours ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class I, level of evidence A</span>]]) <br>
:❑ Ongoing [[ischemia|<span style="color:white;">ischemia</span>]] 12-24 hours following onset ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class IIa, level of evidence C</span>]])<br>
❑ '''Confirm that the patient has no [[STEMI resident survival guide#Contraindications to Fibrinolytic Therapy|<span style="color:white;">contraindications to fibrinolytics</span>]] [[STEMI resident survival guide#Contraindications to Fibrinolytic Therapy|<span style="color:white;">(click here for the complete list shown below)</span>]] <br>'''
</div>}}
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{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF; | F01 | | F03 |F01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 25em; padding:1em;">
'''Administer ONE of the following antiplatelet agents (before or at the time of PCI):''' <br>
❑ [[P2Y12|<span style="color:white;">P2Y12</span>]] receptor inhibitors <br>
:❑ [[Clopidogrel|<span style="color:white;">Clopidogrel</span>]] 600 mg
:❑ [[Ticagrelor|<span style="color:white;">Ticagrelor</span>]] 180 mg
:❑ [[Prasugrel|<span style="color:white;">Prasugrel</span>]] 60 mg <br>
<span style="font-size:85%;">Prasugrel is contraindicated in case of prior history of strokes or TIAs, active pathological bleeding, age ≥75 years, when urgent coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG) is likely, body weight <60 kg, propensity to bleed, concomitant use of medications that increase the risk of bleeding </span> <br>
❑ IV [[GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors|<span style="color:white;">GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors</span>]] <br>
:❑ [[Abciximab|<span style="color:white;">Abciximab</span>]]<br>
::❑ Loading dose 0.25 mg/kg IV bolus <br>
::❑ Maintenance dose 0.125 mg/kg/min <br>
:❑ [[Eptifibatide|<span style="color:white;">Eptifibatide</span>]]<br>
::❑ Loading dose 180 mcg/kg IV bolus
::❑ Another 180 mcg/kg IV bolus after 10 minutes<br>
::❑ Maintenance dose 2 mcg/kg/min <br>
::❑ Decrease infusion by 50% if creatinine clearance <50 mL/min
::❑ Avoid in hemodialysis patients
:❑ [[Tirofiban|<span style="color:white;">Tirofiban</span>]] <br>
::❑ Loading dose 25 mcg/kg<br>
::❑ Maintenance dose 0.15 mcg/kg/min
::❑ Decrease infusion by 50% if [[creatinine|<span style="color:white;">creatinine</span>]] clearance <30 mL/min
----
'''Administer ONE of the following anticoagulant therapy:'''<br>
❑ [[UFH|<span style="color:white;">Unfractionated heparin</span>]] <br>
:♦ ''If GP IIb/IIIa receptor antagonist is planned''
:❑ 50- to 70-U/kg IV bolus <br>
:♦ ''If no GP IIb/IIIa receptor antagonist is planned''
:❑ 70- to 100-U/kg bolus <br>
❑ [[Bivalirudin|<span style="color:white;">Bivalirudin</span>]]
::❑ 0.75-mg/kg IV bolus, then 1.75–mg/kg/h infusion
::❑ Additional bolus of 0.3 mg/kg if needed
::❑ Decrease infusion to 1 mg/kg/h when [[creatinine|<span style="color:white;">creatinine</span>]] clearance <30 mL/min
</div>
| F03=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 25em; padding:1em;"> '''Administer ONE of the following [[fibrinolytic therapy|<span style="color:white;">fibrinolytic therapy</span>]]:''' <br>
❑ [[Tenecteplase|<span style="color:white;">Tenecteplase</span>]] single IV bolus
:❑ 30 mg for weight <60 kg
:❑ 35 mg for weight 60-69 kg
:❑ 40 mg for weight 70-79 kg
:❑ 45 mg for weight 80-89 kg
:❑ 50 mg for weight ≥90 kg<ref name="pmid11136484">{{cite journal| author=Wang-Clow F, Fox NL, Cannon CP, Gibson CM, Berioli S, Bluhmki E et al.| title=Determination of a weight-adjusted dose of TNK-tissue plasminogen activator. | journal=Am Heart J | year= 2001 | volume= 141 | issue= 1 | pages= 33-40 | pmid=11136484 | doi=10.1067/mhj.2001.112092 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11136484  }} </ref>
❑ [[Reteplase|<span style="color:white;">Reteplase</span>]] 10 units IV boluses every 30 min <br>
❑ [[Alteplase|<span style="color:white;">Alteplase</span>]]
:❑ Bolus 15 mg, infusion 0.75 mg/kg for 30 min (maximum 50 mg)
:❑ Then 0.5 mg/kg (maximum 35 mg) over the next 60 min
❑ [[Streptokinase|<span style="color:white;">Streptokinase</span>]] 1.5 million units IV administered over 30-60 min
----
'''Administer a [[Antiplatelet drugs|<span style="color:white;">P2Y12</span>]] inhibitor:''' <br>
❑ [[Clopidogrel|<span style="color:white;">Clopidogrel</span>]] <br>
:♦ ''If age ≤ 75 years''
:❑ Loading dose 300 mg
:❑ 75 mg daily for at least 14 days, up to one year
:♦ ''If age > 75 years''
:❑ Loading dose 75 mg
:❑ 75 mg daily for at least 14 days, up to one year
----
'''Administer ONE of the following anticoagulant therapy:''' <br>
❑ [[UFH|<span style="color:white;">Unfractionated heparin</span>]] <br>
:❑ IV bolus of 60 units/kg (maximum 4000 units)
:❑ Then infusion of 12 units/kg/hour (maximum 1000 units)
:❑ Adjust the infusion for a aPTT of 50-70 sec for 48 hours or until revascularization
❑ [[Enoxaparin|<span style="color:white;">Enoxaparin</span>]] (for up to 8 days or until revascularization)<br>
:'' If age <75 years''
:❑ IV bolus 30 mg
:❑ Then after 15 minutes, SC 1 mg/kg every 12 hours (maximum 100 mg for the first two doses)
:♦ ''If age ≥75 years''
:❑ SC 0.75 mg/kg every 12 hours (maximum 75 mg for the first two doses)
:♦ ''If creatinine clearance <30 mL/min''
:❑ SC 1 mg/kg every 24 hours
❑ [[Fondaparinux|<span style="color:white;">Fondaparinux</span>]]
:❑ Initial dose of 2.5 mg IV
:❑ Then, SC 2.5 mg daily (for up to 8 days or until revascularization)
:❑ Do not administer if creatinine clearance <30 mL/min
</div>}}
{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF; | |!| | | |!| }}
{{familytree |boxstyle=background: #FA8072; color: #F8F8FF; | G01 | | G02 | G01= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 25em; padding:1em;"> '''Consider urgent [[CABG|<span style="color:white;">CABG</span>]] if the coronary anatomy is not amenable to PCI and one of the following:'''<br>
❑ Ongoing and recurrent [[ischemia|<span style="color:white;">ischemia</span>]] <br>
❑ [[Cardiogenic shock|<span style="color:white;">Cardiogenic shock</span>]] <br>
❑ Severe [[heart failure|<span style="color:white;">heart failure</span>]] <br>
❑ Other high risk features
</div>
|G02= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 25em; padding:1em;"> '''Transfer to a PCI-capable hospital for non primary PCI, if there is:''' <br>
❑ [[Cardiogenic shock|<span style="color:white;">Cardiogenic shock</span>]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class I, level of evidence B</span>]]) <br>
❑ Acute severe [[heart failure|<span style="color:white;">heart failure</span>]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class I, level of evidence B</span>]]) <br>
❑ Spontaneous or easily provoked myocardial ischemia ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class I, level of evidence C</span>]]) <br>
❑ Failed reperfusion after [[fibrinolytic therapy|<span style="color:white;">fibrinolytics</span>]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class IIa, level of evidence B</span>]]) <br>
❑ Reocclusion after [[fibrinolytic therapy|<span style="color:white;">fibrinolytics</span>]]([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class IIa, level of evidence B</span>]]) <br>
❑ Successful fibrinolytic reperfusion, between 3 and 24 hours ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|<span style="color:white;">Class IIa, level of evidence B</span>]])
</div> }}
{{familytree/end}}
<br>
<br>


===Contraindications to Fibrinolytic Therapy===
Shown below is a table summarizing the absolute and relative contraindications to [[fibrinolytic therapy]] among [[STEMI]] patients.
{| style="cellpadding=0; cellspacing= 0; width: 600px;"
|-
| style="padding: 0 5px; font-size: 100%; background: #F5F5F5;" align=center | '''Absolute contraindications'''||style="padding: 0 5px; font-size: 100%; background: #F5F5F5;" align=center | '''Relative contraindications'''
|-
| style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px; background: #DCDCDC" align=left |❑ Prior [[intracranial hemorrhage]] <br>
❑ [[Ischemic stroke]] within the last 3 months (unless within 4.5 hours)<br>
❑ Structural cerebral vascular lesion<br>
❑ Primary or [[metastasis|metastatic]] intracranial [[malignancy]] <br>
❑ Suspicion of [[aortic dissection]]<br>
❑ Increased bleeding tendency or active [[bleeding]] <br>
❑ Severe head or facial [[trauma]] within the last 3 months <br>
❑ Intracranial or intraspinal surgery within the last 2 months <br>
❑ Severe [[hypertension]] uncontrolled by emergency therapy <br>
❑ Previous treatment with [[streptokinase]] within the last 6 months
| style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px; background: #DCDCDC" align=left | ❑ [[Oral anticoagulation therapy]] <br>
❑ [[Pregnancy]] <br>
❑ Active [[peptic ulcer]] <br>
❑ Previous history of chronic severe [[hypertension]] that is poorly controlled<br>
❑ Elevated [[blood pressure]] at presentation, such as [[systolic blood pressure]] >180 mmHg or [[diastolic blood pressure]] >110mmHg<br>
❑ Previous history of [[ischemic stroke]] <br>
❑ [[Dementia]] <br>
❑ Intracranial pathology that does not meet the absolute contraindications <br>
❑ [[CPR]] that lasted more than 10 min or that is traumatic <br>
❑ Major surgery in the last 3 weeks <br>
❑ Internal [[bleeding]] within the last 2-4 weeks <br>
❑ Non compressible vascular punctures
|}
==Complete Diagnostic Approach==
A complete diagnostic approach should be carried out after a focused initial rapid evaluation is conducted and following initiation of any urgent intervention.<ref name="O'GaraKushner2013">{{cite journal|last1=O'Gara|first1=Patrick T.|last2=Kushner|first2=Frederick G.|last3=Ascheim|first3=Deborah D.|last4=Casey|first4=Donald E.|last5=Chung|first5=Mina K.|last6=de Lemos|first6=James A.|last7=Ettinger|first7=Steven M.|last8=Fang|first8=James C.|last9=Fesmire|first9=Francis M.|last10=Franklin|first10=Barry A.|last11=Granger|first11=Christopher B.|last12=Krumholz|first12=Harlan M.|last13=Linderbaum|first13=Jane A.|last14=Morrow|first14=David A.|last15=Newby|first15=L. Kristin|last16=Ornato|first16=Joseph P.|last17=Ou|first17=Narith|last18=Radford|first18=Martha J.|last19=Tamis-Holland|first19=Jacqueline E.|last20=Tommaso|first20=Carl L.|last21=Tracy|first21=Cynthia M.|last22=Woo|first22=Y. Joseph|last23=Zhao|first23=David X.|title=2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=61|issue=4|year=2013|pages=e78–e140|issn=07351097|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2012.11.019}}</ref>
<span style="font-size:85%"> '''Abbreviations:''' '''CABG:''' [[coronary artery bypass graft]]; '''ECG:''' [[electrocardiogram]]; '''LAD:''' [[LAD|left anterior descending]]; '''LBBB:''' [[left bundle branch block]]; '''MI:''' [[myocardial infarction]]; '''PCI:''' [[percutaneous coronary intervention]]; '''S3:''' [[S3|third heart sound]]; '''S4:''' [[S4|fourth heart sound]]; '''VSD:''' [[ventricular septal defect]] </span>


{{Family tree/start}}
{{Family tree/start}}
{{familytree  | | | | | | A01 | | | | | A01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 20em; padding:1em;"> '''Characterize the symptoms:''' <br>  
{{familytree  | A01 | | A01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 35em; padding:1em;"> '''Characterize the symptoms:''' <br>
❑ [[Chest pain]]<br>
❑ [[Chest pain]] or [[chest discomfort]] <br>
:❑ Sudden onset
:❑ Sudden onset
:❑ Described as a sensation of tightness, pressure, or squeezing
:❑ Sensation of heaviness, tightness, pressure, or squeezing
:❑ Radiation to the jaw or left arm
:❑ Duration> 20 minutes <br>
:❑ No relief with medications or rest <br>
:❑ Radiation to the left arm, jaw, neck, right arm, back or [[epigastrium]]
:❑ No relief with medications<br>
:❑ No relief with rest <br>
:❑ Worse with time <br>
:❑ Worse with time <br>
:❑ Shortness of breath ([[Dyspnea]]) <br>  
:❑ Worse with exertion<br>
❑ [[Diaphoresis]] <br>  
[[Dyspnea]] <br>
❑ [[Light-headedness]] <br>
❑ [[Weakness]] <br>
❑ [[Nausea]] and/or [[vomiting]]</div>}}
❑ [[Palpitations]] <br>
{{familytree  | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |}}
❑ [[Nausea]] <br>
{{familytree  | | | | | | B01 | | | | | |  B01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 20em; padding:1em;"> '''Obtain a detailed history:''' <br>
❑ [[Vomiting]] <br>
❑ [[Sweating]] <br>
❑ [[Loss of consciousness]]<br>
[[Fatigue]]
</div>}}
{{familytree  | |!| | |}}
{{familytree  | B01 | |  B01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 35em; padding:1em;"> '''Obtain a detailed history:''' <br>
❑ Age <br>
❑ Age <br>
❑ Baseline [[blood pressure]] <br>
❑ Previous [[MI]] <br>
❑ Previous [[MI]] <br>
❑ Previous [[PCI]] or [[CABG]] <br>
❑ Previous [[PCI]] or [[CABG]] <br>
❑ Cardiac risk factors: <br>
❑ Cardiac risk factors<br>
:❑ [[Hypertension]] <br>
:❑ [[Hypertension]] <br>
:❑ [[Diabetes]] <br>
:❑ [[Diabetes]] <br>
:❑ [[Hypercholesterolemia]] <br>
:❑ [[Hypercholesterolemia]] <br>
:❑ [[Smoking]] <br>
:❑ [[Smoking]] <br>
:❑ [[Obesity]]</div>}}
:❑ [[Obesity]] <br>
{{familytree  | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | }}
List of medications <br>
{{familytree  | | | | | | C01 | | | | | | C01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 20em; padding:1em;">'''Examine the patient:''' <br>  
Family history of premature [[coronary artery disease]]
Measure the [[blood pressure]] <br>
----
❑ Measure the [[heart rate]] <br>
'''Identify possible triggers:'''<br>
❑ Auscultate the heart searching for murmurs <br>
Physical exertion <br>
Search for signs of [[CHF]]
❑ [[Stress|Psychological stress]] (anger, anxiety, bereavement, work related stress, natural disasters, wars or sporting events) <br>
:❑ Decreased air entry in the lungs
❑ [[Sexual activity]] <br>
:❑ Edema in the extremities </div>}}
Air pollution or fine particulate matter <br>
{{familytree  | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | }}
Antecedant infection <br>
{{familytree  | | | | | | D01 | | | | | | D01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 20em; padding:1em;">'''Rule out life threatening alternative diagnoses:'''<br>
Heavy meal <br>
[[Aortic dissection]]<br>
❑ [[Cocaine]] <br>
❑ [[Pulmonary embolism]]<br>
❑ [[Marijuana]]</div>}}
❑ [[Cardiac tamponade]]<br>
{{familytree  | |!| | | }}
❑ [[Tension pneumothorax]]<br>
{{familytree  | C01 | | C01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 35em; padding:1em;">'''Examine the patient:''' <br>
❑ [[Esophageal rupture]] </div>}}
{{familytree  | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | }}
{{familytree  | | | | | | E01 | | | | | |  E01=<div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 20em; padding:1em;">'''Order labs and tests:'''</div>}}
{{familytree  | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | }}
{{familytree  | | F01 | | F02 | | F03 | | |F01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 18em; padding:1em;">'''[[EKG]]'''<br> ❑ New ST elevation at the J point in at least 2 contiguous leads of 2 mm (0.2 mV) in men or 1.5 mm (0.15 mV) in women in leads V2–V3 and/or of 1 mm (0.1
mV) in other contiguous chest leads or the limb leads <br> ❑ For EKG examples click [[ST elevation myocardial infarction electrocardiogram|here]]</div> | F02=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 15em; padding:1em;"> '''Cardiac Enzymes''' <br>
:[[Troponin I]] (preferred biomarker)<br>
:[[CK-MB]] </div>
|F03=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 15em; padding:1em;">'''Other labs:''' <br>
[[Creatinine]] <br>
❑ [[Glucose]] <br>
❑ [[Hemoglobin]] </div>}}
{{familytree  | | |`|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|'| | | }}
{{familytree  | | | | | | G01 | | | | | |  G01= <div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 20em; padding:1em;"> ❑ Symptoms + increase in Troponin <br> + EKG ST elevation </div>}}
{{familytree  | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | }}
{{familytree  | | | | | | H01 | | | | | |  H01=<div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 20em; padding:1em;">'''Start treatment for STEMI'''</div>}}


'''Vital signs''' <br>
❑ [[Blood pressure]] <br>
:❑ [[Blood pressure]] lower than baseline, suggestive of:
::❑ [[Cardiogenic shock]] (associated with [[tachycardia]] and end organ hypoperfusion), or
::❑ [[Right ventricular MI]] (associated with increased [[jugular venous pressure]] and clear lung fields), or
::❑ [[Bezold-Jarisch reflex]] (associated with either normal [[heart rate]] or [[bradycardia]])
:❑ Discrepancy between arms (suggestive of [[aortic dissection]])
:❑ Narrow [[pulse pressure]] (suggestive of [[heart failure]])
:❑ Wide [[pulse pressure]] (suggestive of [[mitral regurgitation]] or [[VSD]])


❑ [[Heart rate]] <br>
:❑ [[Tachycardia]] (suggestive of [[heart failure]])
:❑ [[Bradycardia]] (suggestive of [[heart block]])
'''Pulses''' <br>
❑  [[Femoral artery|Femoral pulse]] (if a patient is to undergo [[PCI]])<br>
:❑ Strength
:❑ [[Bruits]]
'''Skin''' <br>
❑ [[Xanthelasma]] (suggestive of [[dyslipidemia]]) <br>
❑ [[Xanthoma]] (suggestive of [[dyslipidemia]]) <br>
❑ [[Edema]] (suggestive of [[heart failure]])<br>
❑ [[Cyanosis|Cyanotic]] and cold skin, lips, nail bed (suggestive of [[cardiogenic shock]]) <br>
'''Heart''' <br>
❑ [[Heart sounds]]<br>
:❑ [[S3]] (suggestive of [[heart failure]])
:❑ [[S4]] (associated with conditions that increase the stiffness of the ventricle)
❑ [[Murmurs]]
:❑ [[Mitral regurgitation]]: blowing holosystolic murmur best heard at the apex
:❑ [[VSD]]: holosystolic murmur along the left and right sternal border
:❑ [[Free wall rupture]]: holosytolic murmur
:❑ [[Aortic regurgitation]]: early diastolic high-pitched sound best heard at the left sternal border (suggestive of [[aortic dissection]] with propagation to the aortic arch)
❑ [[Friction rub|Pericardial friction rub]] (suggestive of [[pericarditis]])
'''Signs of right ventricular MI:'''<br>
❑  Elevated [[jugular venous pressure]]<br>
❑  Presence of [[hepatojugular reflux]]<br>
'''Lungs''' <br>
❑ [[Rales]] (suggestive of [[heart failure]]) <br>
</div>}}
{{Family tree/end}}
{{Family tree/end}}


===Therapeutic Apporach===
==Pre-Discharge Care==
Shown below is an algorithm depicting the therapeutic approach to STEMI based on the 2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction.<ref name="O'GaraKushner2013">{{cite journal|last1=O'Gara|first1=Patrick T.|last2=Kushner|first2=Frederick G.|last3=Ascheim|first3=Deborah D.|last4=Casey|first4=Donald E.|last5=Chung|first5=Mina K.|last6=de Lemos|first6=James A.|last7=Ettinger|first7=Steven M.|last8=Fang|first8=James C.|last9=Fesmire|first9=Francis M.|last10=Franklin|first10=Barry A.|last11=Granger|first11=Christopher B.|last12=Krumholz|first12=Harlan M.|last13=Linderbaum|first13=Jane A.|last14=Morrow|first14=David A.|last15=Newby|first15=L. Kristin|last16=Ornato|first16=Joseph P.|last17=Ou|first17=Narith|last18=Radford|first18=Martha J.|last19=Tamis-Holland|first19=Jacqueline E.|last20=Tommaso|first20=Carl L.|last21=Tracy|first21=Cynthia M.|last22=Woo|first22=Y. Joseph|last23=Zhao|first23=David X.|title=2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=61|issue=4|year=2013|pages=e78–e140|issn=07351097|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2012.11.019}}</ref>
<span style="font-size:85%"> '''Abbreviations:''' '''ACE:''' [[angiotensin converting enzyme]]; '''LVEF:''' [[left ventricular ejection fraction]]; '''MI:''' [[myocardial infarction]]; '''PCI:''' [[percutaneous coronary intervention]]; '''PO:''' per os; '''STEMI:''' [[ST elevation myocardial infarction]]; '''VF:''' [[ventricular fibrillation]]; '''VT:''' [[ventricular tachycardia]] </span>


{{Family tree/start}}
{{Family tree/start}}
{{familytree  | | | | | | | A01 | | | | | | A01= '''Initial Treatment'''<br> <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 30em; padding:1em;"> ❑ Administer 300 mg [[aspirin]]<ref name="pmid18574276">{{cite journal| author=Harrington RA, Becker RC, Cannon CP, Gutterman D, Lincoff AM, Popma JJ et al.| title=Antithrombotic therapy for non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). | journal=Chest | year= 2008 | volume= 133 | issue= 6 Suppl | pages= 670S-707S | pmid=18574276 | doi=10.1378/chest.08-0691 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18574276 }} </ref> <br>
{{familytree  | A01 | | |A01= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 30em; padding:1em;">'''Administer the following medications in patients without contraindications:'''<br>
Administer [[oxygen]] in patients with saturation <90%<ref name="pmid23554440">{{cite journal| author=Shuvy M, Atar D, Gabriel Steg P, Halvorsen S, Jolly S, Yusuf S et al.| title=Oxygen therapy in acute coronary syndrome: are the benefits worth the risk? | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2013 | volume= 34 | issue= 22 | pages= 1630-5 | pmid=23554440 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/eht110 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23554440  }} </ref><br>
[[Aspirin]] 81-325 mg (indefinitely) <br>
Administer sublingual [[nitroglycerine]], (0.4-0.8 mg)<ref name="pmid10704160">{{cite journal| author=Doucet S, Malekianpour M, Théroux P, Bilodeau L, Côté G, de Guise P et al.| title=Randomized trial comparing intravenous nitroglycerin and heparin for treatment of unstable angina secondary to restenosis after coronary artery angioplasty. | journal=Circulation | year= 2000 | volume= 101 | issue= 9 | pages= 955-61 | pmid=10704160 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10704160  }} </ref> <br>
[[Beta blockers]] <br>
Administer [[morphine]] IV (initial dose 2-4 mg with increments of 2-8 mg every 5 to 15 minutes) <br>
<span style="font-size:85%;color:red">Contraindicated in heart failure, prolonged or high degree AV block, reactive airway disease, high risk of cardiogenic shock and low cardiac output state</span>
Administer [[beta-blockers]] (unless contraindicated)<ref name="pmid17502569">{{cite journal| author=Rosendorff C, Black HR, Cannon CP, Gersh BJ, Gore J, Izzo JL et al.| title=Treatment of hypertension in the prevention and management of ischemic heart disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council for High Blood Pressure Research and the Councils on Clinical Cardiology and Epidemiology and Prevention. | journal=Circulation | year= 2007 | volume= 115 | issue= 21 | pages= 2761-88 | pmid=17502569 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.183885 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17502569  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid15288162">{{cite journal| author=López-Sendón J, Swedberg K, McMurray J, Tamargo J, Maggioni AP, Dargie H et al.| title=Expert consensus document on beta-adrenergic receptor blockers. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2004 | volume= 25 | issue= 15 | pages= 1341-62 | pmid=15288162 | doi=10.1016/j.ehj.2004.06.002 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15288162  }} </ref><br>
:❑ [[Metoprolol tartrate]]
Administer [[statins]] ([[atorvastatin]], 80 mg)<ref name="pmid15007110">{{cite journal| author=Cannon CP, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, Rader DJ, Rouleau JL, Belder R et al.| title=Intensive versus moderate lipid lowering with statins after acute coronary syndromes. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2004 | volume= 350 | issue= 15 | pages= 1495-504 | pmid=15007110 | doi=10.1056/NEJMoa040583 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15007110  }}  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15341453 Review in: ACP J Club. 2004 Sep-Oct;141(2):33] </ref><br>
::❑ Begin with 25 to 50 mg PO every 6 to 12 hour
❑ Administer [[antithrombotic]] treatment<br>
::❑ Then, [[metoprolol tartrate]] twice daily or [[metoprolol succinate]] once daily for 2-3 days
:❑ [[Fondaparinux]], or<br>
::❑ Titate to 200 mg daily, OR
:❑ [[UFH]] in case of [[renal failure]]<ref name="pmid16537663">{{cite journal| author=Fifth Organization to Assess Strategies in Acute Ischemic Syndromes Investigators. Yusuf S, Mehta SR, Chrolavicius S, Afzal R, Pogue J et al.| title=Comparison of fondaparinux and enoxaparin in acute coronary syndromes. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2006 | volume= 354 | issue= 14 | pages= 1464-76 | pmid=16537663 | doi=10.1056/NEJMoa055443 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16537663 }} [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16944851 Review in: ACP J Club. 2006 Sep-Oct;145(2):30-1] </ref>   </div>}}
:❑ [[Carvedilol]]
{{familytree | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | }}
::❑ Begin with 6.25 mg twice daily
{{familytree | | | | | | | B01 | | | | | | B01=<div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 30em; padding:1em;">'''Is PCI available?''' </div>}}
::❑ Titrate to 25 mg twice daily
{{familytree | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| | | }}
❑ [[ACE inhibitor]] in case of [[anterior MI]], [[ejection fraction]] ≤ 40% or [[heart failure]] <br>
{{familytree | | | C01 | | | | | | C02 | | C01=<div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 15em; padding:1em;">'''Yes''' </div>| C02= <div style="float: left; text-align: center; width: 15em; padding:1em;">'''No''' </div> }}
<span style="font-size:85%;color:red">Contraindicated in hypotension, renal failure and hyperkalemia</span>
{{familytree | | | |!| | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| }}
:❑ [[Lisinopril]]
{{familytree | | | D01 |-|-|-| D02 | | D03 |D01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 20em; padding:1em;">Send to cath lab for primary PCI</div>| D02=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 15em; padding:1em;"> ❑ Transfer for primary PCI <br> ❑ FMC to device time as soon as possible and ≤ 120 min. </div>| D03=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 15em; padding:1em;"> ❑ Administer fibrinolytic agent within 30 min of arrival </div>}}
::❑ Begin with 2.5-5 mg
{{familytree | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | }}
::❑ Titrate to 10 mg or higher daily, OR
{{familytree | | | E01  | | | | | | E01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 20em; padding:1em;">'''Administer one of the following antiplatelet agents:'''</div> }}
:❑ [[Captopril]]
{{familytree | | | |!| | | | | | | | | }}
::❑ Begin with 6.25-12.5 mg three times daily
{{familytree | | | F01 | | | | F01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 20em; padding:1em;">'''Before PCI'''<br>
::❑ Titrate to 25 to 50 mg three times daily, OR
❑ [[P2Y12]] receptor inhibitors <br>
:❑ [[Ramipril]]
:❑ [[Clopidogrel]] (600 mg), or<br>
::❑ Begin with 2.5 mg twice daily
:❑ [[Ticagrelor]] (180 mg), or <br>
::❑ Titrate to 5 mg twice daily, OR
❑ IV [[GP IIb/IIIa]] inhibitors <br>
:❑ [[Trandolapril]]
:❑ [[Eptifibatide]]<br>
::❑ Begin with 0.5 mg daily
::❑ Loading dose 180 mcg/kg IV bolus followed by another bolus after 10 minutes<br>
::❑ Titrate to 4 mg daily, OR
::❑ Maintenance dose 2 mcg/kg/min, or <br>
❑ [[Valsartan]] (in case of intolerance to [[ACE inhibitors]]) <br>
:❑ [[Tirofiban]] <br>
<span style="font-size:85%;color:red">Contraindicated in hypotension, renal failure and hyperkalemia</span>
::❑ Loading dose 25 mcg/kg<br>
:❑ Begin with 20 mg twice daily
::❑ Maintenance dose 0.15 mcg/kg/min</div>}}
:❑ Titrate to 160 mg twice daily
{{familytree | | | |!| | | | | | | | | }}
❑ [[Atorvastatin]] 80 mg daily
{{familytree | | | G01 | | | | G01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 20em; padding:1em;">'''At the time of PCI'''<br>
----
❑ [[P2Y12]] receptor inhibitors <br>
'''Administer antiplatelet therapy'''
:❑ [[Clopidogrel]] (600 mg), or<br>
 
:❑ [[Ticagrelor]] (180 mg), or <br>
'''''For patients who underwent PCI, for one year'''<br>''
:Prasugrel (60 mg)<br>
❑ [[Clopidogrel]] 75 mg daily, OR <br>
❑ IV [[GP IIb/IIIa]] inhibitors <br>
❑ [[Prasugrel]] 10 mg daily, OR <br>
:❑ [[Eptifibatide]]<br>
❑ [[Ticagrelor]] 90 mg twice a day <br>
::❑ Loading dose 180 mcg/kg IV bolus followed by another bolus after 10 minutes<br>
<br>
::❑ Maintenance dose 2 mcg/kg/min, or <br>
'''''For patients who underwent fibrinolysis, for at least 14 days, up to one year '''<br>''
:❑ [[Tirofiban]] <br>
❑ [[Clopidogrel]] 75 mg daily
::❑ Loading dose 25 mcg/kg<br>
----
::❑ Maintenance dose 0.15 mcg/kg/min<br></div>}}
'''Manage complications of STEMI''' <br>
❑ [[ICD|Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]] at least 40 days following the [[MI]] in cases of:<br>
:❑ [[LVEF]] <30% among patients in NYHA functional Class I ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence A]])
:❑ [[LVEF]] <35% among patients in NYHA functional Class II or III ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence A]])
:❑ [[LVEF]] <40% ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence B]])<br>
:❑ An irreversible non-ischemia related [[VT]]/ [[VF]] after more than 48 hours following [[STEMI]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence B]])<ref name="pmid18534377">{{cite journal| author=Epstein AE, Dimarco JP, Ellenbogen KA, Estes NA, Freedman RA, Gettes LS et al.| title=ACC/AHA/HRS 2008 guidelines for Device-Based Therapy of Cardiac Rhythm Abnormalities: executive summary. | journal=Heart Rhythm | year= 2008 | volume= 5 | issue= 6 | pages= 934-55 | pmid=18534377 | doi=10.1016/j.hrthm.2008.04.015 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18534377 }} </ref>
Temporary pacing for symptomatic [[bradycardia]] refractory to medical therapy ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence C]])<br>
❑ [[Aspirin]] for [[pericarditis]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence B]])
:❑ do not administer [[glucocorticoids]] or [[NSAIDs]] for [[pericarditis]] following [[STEMI]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class III, level of evidence B]])
----
'''Assess the patient for ischemia:'''<br>
Perform non invasive testing before discharge for the evaluation of ischemia among patients who did not undergo [[coronary angiography]] and in whom [[coronary angiography]] is not warranted due to the absence of high risk features ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence B]]) <br>
Assess the [[LVEF]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence C]])
</div>}}
{{familytree/end}}
{{familytree/end}}
==Long Term Management==
<span style="font-size:85%"> '''Abbreviations:''' '''ACE:''' [[angiotensin converting enzyme]]; '''ARB:''' [[angiotensin receptor blocker]]; '''MI:''' [[myocardial infarction]] </span>
{{Family tree/start}}
{{familytree  | A01 | | A01= <div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 30em; padding:1em;"> ❑ Prepare a list of all the home medications and educate the patient about compliance
:❑ [[Aspirin]] 81-325 mg (indefinitely)
:❑ [[Antiplatelet drug|Antiplatelet therapy]]
:❑ Consider oral factor Xa inhibition with [[Rivaroxaban]] outside the US based upon EMA approval (Note [[Rivaroxaban]] is not FDA approved for use in ACS in the US)
:❑ [[Beta blockers]]
:❑ [[ACE inhibitors]] or [[ARB]] (in case of [[anterior MI]], [[ejection fraction]] ≤ 40% or [[heart failure]])
:❑ [[Atorvastatin]] 80 mg daily
❑ Encourage lifestyle modification <br>
:❑ [[Smoking]] cessation
:❑ Physical activity
:❑ Dietary changes
❑ Ensure the initiation of the management of comorbidities
:❑ [[Obesity]]
:❑ [[Dyslipidemia]]
:❑ [[Hypertension]]
:❑ [[Diabetes]]
:❑ [[Heart failure]]
❑ Educate the patient about the early recognition of symptoms of [[MI]]<br>
❑ Educate the patient about the use of [[nitroglycerin]] 0.4 mg, sublingually, up to 3 doses every 5 minutes </div> }}
{{Family tree/end}}
==Do's==
* A pre-hospital [[ECG]] is recommended.  If [[STEMI]] is diagnosed the [[PCI]] team should be activated while the patient is en route to the hospital.
* Administer reperfusion therapy for all patients presenting with [[STEMI]] within 12 hours of the beginning of the symptoms ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence A]]).
* Administer a loading dose followed by a maintenance dose of [[clopidogrel]], [[ticagrelor]] or [[prasugrel]] (if PCI is planned) as initial treatment instead of aspirin among patients with gastrointestinal intolerance or hypersensitivity reaction to aspirin.
* Administer sublingual [[nitroglycerin]] in patients with ischemic chest pain; however, administer IV nitroglycerin among patients with persistent chest pain after three sublingual nitroglycerins.<ref name="pmid6402912">{{cite journal| author=Kaplan K, Davison R, Parker M, Przybylek J, Teagarden JR, Lesch M| title=Intravenous nitroglycerin for the treatment of angina at rest unresponsive to standard nitrate therapy. | journal=Am J Cardiol | year= 1983 | volume= 51 | issue= 5 | pages= 694-8 | pmid=6402912 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6402912  }} </ref>
* Discontinue [[NSAID|non-steroidal anti-inflamatory drugs]] immediately.<ref name="pmid21224324">{{cite journal| author=Trelle S, Reichenbach S, Wandel S, Hildebrand P, Tschannen B, Villiger PM et al.| title=Cardiovascular safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: network meta-analysis. | journal=BMJ | year= 2011 | volume= 342 | issue=  | pages= c7086 | pmid=21224324 | doi=10.1136/bmj.c7086 | pmc=PMC3019238 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21224324  }}  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21460398 Review in: Evid Based Med. 2011 Oct;16(5):142-3] </ref><ref name="pmid23726390">{{cite journal| author=Coxib and traditional NSAID Trialists' (CNT) Collaboration. Bhala N, Emberson J, Merhi A, Abramson S, Arber N et al.| title=Vascular and upper gastrointestinal effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: meta-analyses of individual participant data from randomised trials. | journal=Lancet | year= 2013 | volume= 382 | issue= 9894 | pages= 769-79 | pmid=23726390 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60900-9 | pmc=PMC3778977 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23726390  }}  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24126661 Review in: Ann Intern Med. 2013 Oct 15;159(8):JC12] </ref>
* Rule out any contraindications for [[fibrinolytic therapy]] before its administration.  If contraindications to fibrinolytics are present, the patient should be transferred to another hospital where [[PCI]] is available.
* Initiate therapeutic hypothermia among comatose patients with [[STEMI]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence B]]).
* Perform immediate [[angiography]] and [[PCI]] among [[STEMI]] patients who underwent resuscitation for [[cardiac arrest]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence B]]).
* Consider bare-metal stent among [[STEMI]] patients with any of the following ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence C]]):
** High bleeding risk
** Lack of compliance for a one year regimen of dual antiplatelet therapy
** Surgery or invasive procedure within the next year
* Achieve the following therapeutic activated clotting time when administering [[UFH]]:
** 200 to 250 seconds with the concomitant administration of  GPIIbIIIa receptor inhibitor
** 250 to 300 seconds (HemoTec device) without the concomitant administration of a GPIIbIIIa receptor inhibitor
** 300 to 350 seconds (Hemochron device) without the concomitant administration of a GPIIbIIIa receptor inhibitor
* Make sure the dose of P2Y12 receptor inhibitors is appropriate among patients undergoing [[PCI]] after [[fibrinolytic therapy]]:
** Patients who already received a loading dose of [[clopidogrel]]: No loading dose, [[clopidogrel]] daily
** Patients who did not receive a loading dose of [[clopidogrel]] and [[PCI]] is performed ≤ 24 hours after fibrinolytic therapy: loading dose of 300 mg [[clopidogrel]]
** Patients who did not receive a loading dose of [[clopidogrel]] and [[PCI]] is performed > 24 hours after fibrinolytic therapy: loading dose of 600 mg [[clopidogrel]]
** Patients who did not receive a loading dose of [[clopidogrel]] and [[PCI]] is performed >24 hours after therapy with fibrin specific agent, or >48 hours after therapy with a non-fibrin-specific agent: [[prasugrel]] 60 mg
* Prepare the patient for urgent [[CABG]] when indicated by discontinuing the following:
** [[Clopidogrel]] or [[ticagrelor]] at least 24 hours prior to [[CABG]]
** [[Eptifibatide]] or [[tirofiban]] at least 2 to 4 hours prior to [[CABG]]
** [[Abciximab]] 12 hours prior to [[CABG]]
* Consider using a mechanical circulatory support among hemodynamically unstable patients with [[STEMI]] requiring an urgent [[CABG]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class IIa, level of evidence C]]).
* Recommend a long term maintenance dose of 81 mg of aspirin when the patient is administered [[ticagrelor]].
* Include [[aldosterone antagonist]] in the discharge medication list among patients who are already on [[ACE inhibitors]] and [[beta-blockers]] with a left ventricular ejection fraction <40% or [[diabetes]] or [[heart failure]].<ref name="O'GaraKushner2013">{{cite journal|last1=O'Gara|first1=Patrick T.|last2=Kushner|first2=Frederick G.|last3=Ascheim|first3=Deborah D.|last4=Casey|first4=Donald E.|last5=Chung|first5=Mina K.|last6=de Lemos|first6=James A.|last7=Ettinger|first7=Steven M.|last8=Fang|first8=James C.|last9=Fesmire|first9=Francis M.|last10=Franklin|first10=Barry A.|last11=Granger|first11=Christopher B.|last12=Krumholz|first12=Harlan M.|last13=Linderbaum|first13=Jane A.|last14=Morrow|first14=David A.|last15=Newby|first15=L. Kristin|last16=Ornato|first16=Joseph P.|last17=Ou|first17=Narith|last18=Radford|first18=Martha J.|last19=Tamis-Holland|first19=Jacqueline E.|last20=Tommaso|first20=Carl L.|last21=Tracy|first21=Cynthia M.|last22=Woo|first22=Y. Joseph|last23=Zhao|first23=David X.|title=2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=61|issue=4|year=2013|pages=e78–e140|issn=07351097|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2012.11.019}}</ref>
==Don'ts==
* Do not administer IV [[beta-blockers]] among patients with elevated risk for cardiogenic shock, signs of [[heart failure]], low ouput state, prolonged [[PR interval]] more than 0.24 seconds, [[second degree AV block|second]] or [[third degree block]] or [[asthma]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence B]]).
* Do not administer IV [[GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors]] to patients with low risk of ischemic events or at high risk of bleeding and who are already on aspirin and P2Y12 receptor inhibitors therapy.
* Do not administer [[nitroglycerine]] to patients with [[systolic blood pressure]] < 90 mm Hg or ≥ to 30 mm Hg below baseline, severe [[bradycardia]] (< 50 bpm), [[tachycardia]] (> 100 bpm), or suspected [[RVMI|right ventricular myocardial infarction]].
* Do not delay the time for reperfusion.
* Do not administer [[prasugrel]] among patients with any of the following:
** Prior history of [[strokes]] or [[TIA]]s ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class III, Level of evidence B]])
** Active pathological bleeding
** Age ≥75 years of age, (except in high-risk patients such as diabetes or prior MI, where its use may be considered)
** Urgent [[coronary artery bypass graft]] surgery ([[CABG]]) is likely
** Presence of additional risk factors for [[bleeding]] such as body weight <60 kg, propensity to bleed, concomitant use of medications that increase the risk of [[bleeding]]<ref name="dailymed.nlm.nih.gov">{{Cite web  | last =  | first =  | title = http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=5fe9c118-c44b-48d7-a142-9668ae3df0c6 | url = http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=5fe9c118-c44b-48d7-a142-9668ae3df0c6 | publisher =  | date =  | accessdate = 6 February 2014 }}</ref>
* Do not administer [[fibrinolytic therapy]] to patients with known history of [[intracranial hemorrhage]], [[cerebral arteriovenous malformation]] or to patients with suspected [[aortic dissection]].
* Do not withhold [[aspirin]] among patients who are planned to undergo urgent [[CABG]] ([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme|Class I, level of evidence C]]).<ref name="O'GaraKushner2013">{{cite journal|last1=O'Gara|first1=Patrick T.|last2=Kushner|first2=Frederick G.|last3=Ascheim|first3=Deborah D.|last4=Casey|first4=Donald E.|last5=Chung|first5=Mina K.|last6=de Lemos|first6=James A.|last7=Ettinger|first7=Steven M.|last8=Fang|first8=James C.|last9=Fesmire|first9=Francis M.|last10=Franklin|first10=Barry A.|last11=Granger|first11=Christopher B.|last12=Krumholz|first12=Harlan M.|last13=Linderbaum|first13=Jane A.|last14=Morrow|first14=David A.|last15=Newby|first15=L. Kristin|last16=Ornato|first16=Joseph P.|last17=Ou|first17=Narith|last18=Radford|first18=Martha J.|last19=Tamis-Holland|first19=Jacqueline E.|last20=Tommaso|first20=Carl L.|last21=Tracy|first21=Cynthia M.|last22=Woo|first22=Y. Joseph|last23=Zhao|first23=David X.|title=2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=61|issue=4|year=2013|pages=e78–e140|issn=07351097|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2012.11.019}}</ref>
==Gallery==
Shown below is an EKG demonstrating the evolution of an [[infarct]] on the EKG. [[ST elevation]], [[Q wave]] formation, [[T wave inversion]], normalization with a persistent Q wave suggest STEMI.
[[Image:STEMI evolution.png|center|800px]]
Copyleft image obtained courtesy of ECGpedia, http://en.ecgpedia.org/wiki/File:AMI_evolutie.png
----
Shown below is an EKG demonstrating loss of R waves throughout the anterior wall ([[Electrocardiogram#Precordial|V1]]-[[Electrocardiogram#Precordial|V6]]). QS complexes in [[Electrocardiogram#Precordial|V3]]-[[Electrocardiogram#Precordial|V5]]. [[ST elevation]] in [[Electrocardiogram#Precordial|V1]]-[[Electrocardiogram#Precordial|V5]] with terminal negative T waves.
[[Image:STEMI 7.jpg|center|800px]]
Copyleft image obtained courtesy of, http://en.ecgpedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
----
Shown below is an EKG demonstrating ST elevation in leads II, III and aVF and ST depression in leads V1, V2 and V3 depicting a [[posterior MI]].
[[Image:Posterior MI patient.jpg|center|800px]]
----
Shown below is an EKG demonstrating acute MI in a patient with [[LBBB]]
[[Image:STEMI 26.jpg|center|800px]]
Copyleft image obtained courtesy of, http://en.ecgpedia.org/wiki/Main_Page


==References==
==References==
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{{reflist|2}}


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Latest revision as of 15:26, 8 August 2014

STEMI Resident Survival Guide Microchapters
Overview
Causes
Pre-Hospital Care
FIRE
Complete Diagnosis
Pre-Discharge Care
Long Term Management
Do's
Don'ts
Gallery

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Alejandro Lemor, M.D. [2]; Rim Halaby, M.D. [3]

Overview

ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) is a syndrome characterized by the presence of symptoms of myocardial ischemia associated with persistent ST elevation on electrocardiogram and elevated cardiac enzymes. The management of STEMI should be initiated without delay and the following timelines should be minimized (the 4 D's):

Door to Data

If a patient presents with chest discomfort, an electrocardiogram must be obtained immediately and no later than 5-10 minutes after arrival. In the patient with chest discomfort, an electrocardiogram should be obtained prior to obtaining insurance / payment information.

Data to Decision

If the electrocardiogram shows ST segment elevation, ST segment depression consistent with posterior MI, or a new left bundle branch block, a decision must be made within 5 to 10 minutes as to whether to administer a fibrinolytic agent or to proceed to primary angioplasty.

Decision to Drug or Device

Once a decision is made to administer a fibrinolytic agent or to proceed to primary angioplasty this should be carried out within 30 minutes.

Causes

Life Threatening Causes

STEMI is a life-threatening condition and must be treated as such irrespective of the underlying cause.

Common Causes

Pre-Hospital Care

Pre-hospital care can begin in the ambulance by Emergency Medical Services (EMS) personnel and it can decrease the delay in the management of STEMI patients. In the United States, volunteers and fire fighters are permitted to initiate emergency care prior to the arrival of highly trained paramedics by beginning CPR and if adequately trained, can defibrillate the patient using an automatic external defibrillator. Early access to EMS is promoted by a 9-1-1 system.

Prehospital Care

❑ Check the vital signs
❑ Perform 12 lead ECG and transmit it to the receiving hospital
❑ Establish large bore IV access
❑ Administer oxygen
❑ Administer medications (depending on the level of training)

Non-enteric coated aspirin
Sublingual nitroglycerin if an RV infarct and / or hypotension are not present
❑ In so far as the risk of emergency coronary artery bypass surgery is <1%, a thienopyridine such as Prasugrel, Ticagrelor or Clopidogrel can be administered
Unfractionated heparin
Glycoprotein IIb IIIa inhibitors
Fibrinolytic therapy (especially in rural areas)

❑ Activate the cardiac cath team in the hospital
Resuscitation in case of cardiac arrest

CPR
Automated defibrillator
 
 

FIRE: Focused Initial Rapid Evaluation

A Focused Initial Rapid Evaluation (FIRE) should be performed to identify patients in need of immediate intervention.[1]

Abbreviations: LBBB: left bundle branch block; CABG: coronary artery bypass graft; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; DVT: deep vein thrombosis; ECG: electrocardiography; GP IIb IIIa: glycoprotein IIb IIIa; LAD: left anterior descending; MI: myocardial infarction; PCI: percutaneous coronary intervention; SC: subcutaneous injection; STEMI: ST elevation myocardial infarction

Boxes in red signify that an urgent management is needed.

 
 
 
Identify cardinal findings of STEMI:

Chest pain or chest discomfort

❑ Sudden onset
❑ Sensation of heaviness, tightness, pressure, or squeezing
❑ Duration> 20 minutes
❑ Radiation to the left arm, jaw, neck, right arm, back or epigastrium
❑ No relief with medications
❑ No relief with rest
❑ Worse with time
❑ Worse with exertion
❑ Associated symptoms of palpitations, nausea, vomiting and sweating

Characteristic ECG changes consistent with STEMI

ST elevation in at least 2 contiguous leads of 2 mm (0.2 mV) in men or 1.5 mm (0.15 mV) in women in leads V2–V3 and/or of 1 mm (0.1mV) in other contiguous chest leads or the limb leads
ST depression in at least two precordial leads V1-V4 (suggestive of posterior MI)
ST depression in several leads plus ST elevation in lead aVR (suggestive of occlusion of the left main or proximal LAD artery)
❑ New LBBB

Click here for the gallery of ECG examples below.

Increase in troponin and / or CK MB
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Rule out life threatening alternative diagnoses:

Aortic dissection
(suggestive findings: back pain, interscapular pain, aortic regurgitation, pulsus paradoxus, blood pressure discrepancy between the arms)
Pulmonary embolism
(suggestive findings: acute onset of dyspnea, tachypnea, hemoptysis, previous DVT)
Cardiac tamponade
(suggestive findings: hypotension, jugular venous distention, muffled heart sounds, pulsus paradoxus)
Tension pneumothorax
(suggestive findings: sudden dyspnea, tachycardia, chest trauma, unilateral absence of breath sound)

Esophageal rupture
(suggestive findings: vomiting, subcutaneous emphysema)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Assess appropriateness of patients for perfusion therapy:

Contraindications to fibrinolytics (click here for the complete list shown below)
❑ Assess the femoral pulses (strength, bruit)

Pericarditis (suggestive finding: pericardial friction rub)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Consider right ventricular MI in case of:

Hypotension
❑ Elevated jugular venous pressure
❑ Clear lung fields
Peripheral edema
ECG changes suggestive of an inferior MI

ST elevation in leads II, III and aVF
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Order a right sided ECG in all patients with ST elevation in leads II, III and aVF:

❑ Clearly label the ECG as right sided
ST elevation of >1 mm in lead V4R suggests a right ventricular MI

Click here for right ventricular myocardial infarction resident survival guide
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Begin initial treatment:
❑ Administer 162 - 325 mg of non enteric aspirin
❑ Orally, crushed or chewed, OR
❑ Intravenously

❑ Administer 2-4 L/min oxygen via nasal cannula when saturation <90%

❑ Caution in COPD patients: maintain an oxygen saturation between 88% and 92%

❑ Administer beta-blockers (unless contraindicated) and titrate to the heart rate and blood pressure
Contraindicated in heart failure , prolonged or high degree AV block , reactive airway disease , high risk of cardiogenic shock and low cardiac output state

Metoprolol IV, 5 mg every 5 min, up to 3 doses
Carvedilol IV, 25 mg, two times a day

❑ Administer sublingual nitroglycerin 0.4 mg every 5 minutes for a total of 3 doses
Contraindicated in suspected right ventricular MI , recent use of phosphodiesterase inhibitors , decreased blood pressure 30 mmHg below baseline
❑ Administer IV morphine if needed

❑ Initial dose 4-8 mg
❑ 2-8 mg every 5 to 15 minutes, as needed

❑ Administer 80 mg atorvastatin
❑ Monitor with a 12-lead ECG all the time

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Is PCI available?
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
YES
 
 
 
NO
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Is first medical contact to device ≤ 120 min?
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
NO
 
YES
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Primary PCI within 90 minutes
 
Fibrinolytic therapy within 30 min
 
Transfer for primary PCI
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Confirm that the patient has one of the following indications:

❑ Symptoms of ischemia <12 hours (Class I, level of evidence A)
❑ Symptoms of ischemia <12 hours and contraindications to fibrinolytics irrespective of time delay (Class I, level of evidence B)
Cardiogenic shock irrespective of time delay (Class I, level of evidence B)
Heart failure irrespective of time delay (Class I, level of evidence B)

❑ Ongoing ischemia 12-24 hours following onset (Class IIa, level of evidence B)
 
Confirm that the patient has one of the following indications:
❑ Symptoms of ischemia <12 hours (Class I, level of evidence A)
❑ Ongoing ischemia 12-24 hours following onset (Class IIa, level of evidence C)

Confirm that the patient has no contraindications to fibrinolytics (click here for the complete list shown below)

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Administer ONE of the following antiplatelet agents (before or at the time of PCI):
P2Y12 receptor inhibitors

Clopidogrel 600 mg
Ticagrelor 180 mg
Prasugrel 60 mg

Prasugrel is contraindicated in case of prior history of strokes or TIAs, active pathological bleeding, age ≥75 years, when urgent coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG) is likely, body weight <60 kg, propensity to bleed, concomitant use of medications that increase the risk of bleeding
❑ IV GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors

Abciximab
❑ Loading dose 0.25 mg/kg IV bolus
❑ Maintenance dose 0.125 mg/kg/min
Eptifibatide
❑ Loading dose 180 mcg/kg IV bolus
❑ Another 180 mcg/kg IV bolus after 10 minutes
❑ Maintenance dose 2 mcg/kg/min
❑ Decrease infusion by 50% if creatinine clearance <50 mL/min
❑ Avoid in hemodialysis patients
Tirofiban
❑ Loading dose 25 mcg/kg
❑ Maintenance dose 0.15 mcg/kg/min
❑ Decrease infusion by 50% if creatinine clearance <30 mL/min

Administer ONE of the following anticoagulant therapy:
Unfractionated heparin

If GP IIb/IIIa receptor antagonist is planned
❑ 50- to 70-U/kg IV bolus
If no GP IIb/IIIa receptor antagonist is planned
❑ 70- to 100-U/kg bolus

Bivalirudin

❑ 0.75-mg/kg IV bolus, then 1.75–mg/kg/h infusion
❑ Additional bolus of 0.3 mg/kg if needed
❑ Decrease infusion to 1 mg/kg/h when creatinine clearance <30 mL/min
 
Administer ONE of the following fibrinolytic therapy:

Tenecteplase single IV bolus

❑ 30 mg for weight <60 kg
❑ 35 mg for weight 60-69 kg
❑ 40 mg for weight 70-79 kg
❑ 45 mg for weight 80-89 kg
❑ 50 mg for weight ≥90 kg[2]

Reteplase 10 units IV boluses every 30 min
Alteplase

❑ Bolus 15 mg, infusion 0.75 mg/kg for 30 min (maximum 50 mg)
❑ Then 0.5 mg/kg (maximum 35 mg) over the next 60 min

Streptokinase 1.5 million units IV administered over 30-60 min


Administer a P2Y12 inhibitor:
Clopidogrel

If age ≤ 75 years
❑ Loading dose 300 mg
❑ 75 mg daily for at least 14 days, up to one year
If age > 75 years
❑ Loading dose 75 mg
❑ 75 mg daily for at least 14 days, up to one year

Administer ONE of the following anticoagulant therapy:
Unfractionated heparin

❑ IV bolus of 60 units/kg (maximum 4000 units)
❑ Then infusion of 12 units/kg/hour (maximum 1000 units)
❑ Adjust the infusion for a aPTT of 50-70 sec for 48 hours or until revascularization

Enoxaparin (for up to 8 days or until revascularization)

If age <75 years
❑ IV bolus 30 mg
❑ Then after 15 minutes, SC 1 mg/kg every 12 hours (maximum 100 mg for the first two doses)
If age ≥75 years
❑ SC 0.75 mg/kg every 12 hours (maximum 75 mg for the first two doses)
If creatinine clearance <30 mL/min
❑ SC 1 mg/kg every 24 hours

Fondaparinux

❑ Initial dose of 2.5 mg IV
❑ Then, SC 2.5 mg daily (for up to 8 days or until revascularization)
❑ Do not administer if creatinine clearance <30 mL/min
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Consider urgent CABG if the coronary anatomy is not amenable to PCI and one of the following:

❑ Ongoing and recurrent ischemia
Cardiogenic shock
❑ Severe heart failure
❑ Other high risk features

 
Transfer to a PCI-capable hospital for non primary PCI, if there is:

Cardiogenic shock (Class I, level of evidence B)
❑ Acute severe heart failure (Class I, level of evidence B)
❑ Spontaneous or easily provoked myocardial ischemia (Class I, level of evidence C)
❑ Failed reperfusion after fibrinolytics (Class IIa, level of evidence B)
❑ Reocclusion after fibrinolytics(Class IIa, level of evidence B)
❑ Successful fibrinolytic reperfusion, between 3 and 24 hours (Class IIa, level of evidence B)



Contraindications to Fibrinolytic Therapy

Shown below is a table summarizing the absolute and relative contraindications to fibrinolytic therapy among STEMI patients.

Absolute contraindications Relative contraindications
❑ Prior intracranial hemorrhage

Ischemic stroke within the last 3 months (unless within 4.5 hours)
❑ Structural cerebral vascular lesion
❑ Primary or metastatic intracranial malignancy
❑ Suspicion of aortic dissection
❑ Increased bleeding tendency or active bleeding
❑ Severe head or facial trauma within the last 3 months
❑ Intracranial or intraspinal surgery within the last 2 months
❑ Severe hypertension uncontrolled by emergency therapy
❑ Previous treatment with streptokinase within the last 6 months

Oral anticoagulation therapy

Pregnancy
❑ Active peptic ulcer
❑ Previous history of chronic severe hypertension that is poorly controlled
❑ Elevated blood pressure at presentation, such as systolic blood pressure >180 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure >110mmHg
❑ Previous history of ischemic stroke
Dementia
❑ Intracranial pathology that does not meet the absolute contraindications
CPR that lasted more than 10 min or that is traumatic
❑ Major surgery in the last 3 weeks
❑ Internal bleeding within the last 2-4 weeks
❑ Non compressible vascular punctures

Complete Diagnostic Approach

A complete diagnostic approach should be carried out after a focused initial rapid evaluation is conducted and following initiation of any urgent intervention.[1]

Abbreviations: CABG: coronary artery bypass graft; ECG: electrocardiogram; LAD: left anterior descending; LBBB: left bundle branch block; MI: myocardial infarction; PCI: percutaneous coronary intervention; S3: third heart sound; S4: fourth heart sound; VSD: ventricular septal defect

Characterize the symptoms:

Chest pain or chest discomfort

❑ Sudden onset
❑ Sensation of heaviness, tightness, pressure, or squeezing
❑ Duration> 20 minutes
❑ Radiation to the left arm, jaw, neck, right arm, back or epigastrium
❑ No relief with medications
❑ No relief with rest
❑ Worse with time
❑ Worse with exertion

Dyspnea
Weakness
Palpitations
Nausea
Vomiting
Sweating
Loss of consciousness
Fatigue

 
 
 
 
 
 
Obtain a detailed history:

❑ Age
❑ Baseline blood pressure
❑ Previous MI
❑ Previous PCI or CABG
❑ Cardiac risk factors

Hypertension
Diabetes
Hypercholesterolemia
Smoking
Obesity

❑ List of medications
❑ Family history of premature coronary artery disease


Identify possible triggers:
❑ Physical exertion
Psychological stress (anger, anxiety, bereavement, work related stress, natural disasters, wars or sporting events)
Sexual activity
❑ Air pollution or fine particulate matter
❑ Antecedant infection
❑ Heavy meal
Cocaine

Marijuana
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Examine the patient:

Vital signs
Blood pressure

Blood pressure lower than baseline, suggestive of:
Cardiogenic shock (associated with tachycardia and end organ hypoperfusion), or
Right ventricular MI (associated with increased jugular venous pressure and clear lung fields), or
Bezold-Jarisch reflex (associated with either normal heart rate or bradycardia)
❑ Discrepancy between arms (suggestive of aortic dissection)
❑ Narrow pulse pressure (suggestive of heart failure)
❑ Wide pulse pressure (suggestive of mitral regurgitation or VSD)

Heart rate

Tachycardia (suggestive of heart failure)
Bradycardia (suggestive of heart block)

Pulses
Femoral pulse (if a patient is to undergo PCI)

❑ Strength
Bruits

Skin
Xanthelasma (suggestive of dyslipidemia)
Xanthoma (suggestive of dyslipidemia)
Edema (suggestive of heart failure)
Cyanotic and cold skin, lips, nail bed (suggestive of cardiogenic shock)

Heart
Heart sounds

S3 (suggestive of heart failure)
S4 (associated with conditions that increase the stiffness of the ventricle)

Murmurs

Mitral regurgitation: blowing holosystolic murmur best heard at the apex
VSD: holosystolic murmur along the left and right sternal border
Free wall rupture: holosytolic murmur
Aortic regurgitation: early diastolic high-pitched sound best heard at the left sternal border (suggestive of aortic dissection with propagation to the aortic arch)

Pericardial friction rub (suggestive of pericarditis)

Signs of right ventricular MI:
❑ Elevated jugular venous pressure
❑ Presence of hepatojugular reflux

Lungs
Rales (suggestive of heart failure)

 

Pre-Discharge Care

Abbreviations: ACE: angiotensin converting enzyme; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; MI: myocardial infarction; PCI: percutaneous coronary intervention; PO: per os; STEMI: ST elevation myocardial infarction; VF: ventricular fibrillation; VT: ventricular tachycardia

Administer the following medications in patients without contraindications:

Aspirin 81-325 mg (indefinitely)
Beta blockers
Contraindicated in heart failure, prolonged or high degree AV block, reactive airway disease, high risk of cardiogenic shock and low cardiac output state

Metoprolol tartrate
❑ Begin with 25 to 50 mg PO every 6 to 12 hour
❑ Then, metoprolol tartrate twice daily or metoprolol succinate once daily for 2-3 days
❑ Titate to 200 mg daily, OR
Carvedilol
❑ Begin with 6.25 mg twice daily
❑ Titrate to 25 mg twice daily

ACE inhibitor in case of anterior MI, ejection fraction ≤ 40% or heart failure
Contraindicated in hypotension, renal failure and hyperkalemia

Lisinopril
❑ Begin with 2.5-5 mg
❑ Titrate to 10 mg or higher daily, OR
Captopril
❑ Begin with 6.25-12.5 mg three times daily
❑ Titrate to 25 to 50 mg three times daily, OR
Ramipril
❑ Begin with 2.5 mg twice daily
❑ Titrate to 5 mg twice daily, OR
Trandolapril
❑ Begin with 0.5 mg daily
❑ Titrate to 4 mg daily, OR

Valsartan (in case of intolerance to ACE inhibitors)
Contraindicated in hypotension, renal failure and hyperkalemia

❑ Begin with 20 mg twice daily
❑ Titrate to 160 mg twice daily

Atorvastatin 80 mg daily


Administer antiplatelet therapy

For patients who underwent PCI, for one year
Clopidogrel 75 mg daily, OR
Prasugrel 10 mg daily, OR
Ticagrelor 90 mg twice a day

For patients who underwent fibrinolysis, for at least 14 days, up to one year
Clopidogrel 75 mg daily


Manage complications of STEMI
Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator at least 40 days following the MI in cases of:

LVEF <30% among patients in NYHA functional Class I (Class I, level of evidence A)
LVEF <35% among patients in NYHA functional Class II or III (Class I, level of evidence A)
LVEF <40% (Class I, level of evidence B)
❑ An irreversible non-ischemia related VT/ VF after more than 48 hours following STEMI (Class I, level of evidence B)[3]

❑ Temporary pacing for symptomatic bradycardia refractory to medical therapy (Class I, level of evidence C)
Aspirin for pericarditis (Class I, level of evidence B)

❑ do not administer glucocorticoids or NSAIDs for pericarditis following STEMI (Class III, level of evidence B)

Assess the patient for ischemia:
❑ Perform non invasive testing before discharge for the evaluation of ischemia among patients who did not undergo coronary angiography and in whom coronary angiography is not warranted due to the absence of high risk features (Class I, level of evidence B)
❑ Assess the LVEF (Class I, level of evidence C)

 
 

Long Term Management

Abbreviations: ACE: angiotensin converting enzyme; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; MI: myocardial infarction

❑ Prepare a list of all the home medications and educate the patient about compliance
Aspirin 81-325 mg (indefinitely)
Antiplatelet therapy
❑ Consider oral factor Xa inhibition with Rivaroxaban outside the US based upon EMA approval (Note Rivaroxaban is not FDA approved for use in ACS in the US)
Beta blockers
ACE inhibitors or ARB (in case of anterior MI, ejection fraction ≤ 40% or heart failure)
Atorvastatin 80 mg daily

❑ Encourage lifestyle modification

Smoking cessation
❑ Physical activity
❑ Dietary changes

❑ Ensure the initiation of the management of comorbidities

Obesity
Dyslipidemia
Hypertension
Diabetes
Heart failure

❑ Educate the patient about the early recognition of symptoms of MI

❑ Educate the patient about the use of nitroglycerin 0.4 mg, sublingually, up to 3 doses every 5 minutes
 

Do's

  • A pre-hospital ECG is recommended. If STEMI is diagnosed the PCI team should be activated while the patient is en route to the hospital.
  • Administer a loading dose followed by a maintenance dose of clopidogrel, ticagrelor or prasugrel (if PCI is planned) as initial treatment instead of aspirin among patients with gastrointestinal intolerance or hypersensitivity reaction to aspirin.
  • Administer sublingual nitroglycerin in patients with ischemic chest pain; however, administer IV nitroglycerin among patients with persistent chest pain after three sublingual nitroglycerins.[4]
  • Rule out any contraindications for fibrinolytic therapy before its administration. If contraindications to fibrinolytics are present, the patient should be transferred to another hospital where PCI is available.
  • Consider bare-metal stent among STEMI patients with any of the following (Class I, level of evidence C):
    • High bleeding risk
    • Lack of compliance for a one year regimen of dual antiplatelet therapy
    • Surgery or invasive procedure within the next year
  • Achieve the following therapeutic activated clotting time when administering UFH:
    • 200 to 250 seconds with the concomitant administration of GPIIbIIIa receptor inhibitor
    • 250 to 300 seconds (HemoTec device) without the concomitant administration of a GPIIbIIIa receptor inhibitor
    • 300 to 350 seconds (Hemochron device) without the concomitant administration of a GPIIbIIIa receptor inhibitor
  • Make sure the dose of P2Y12 receptor inhibitors is appropriate among patients undergoing PCI after fibrinolytic therapy:
    • Patients who already received a loading dose of clopidogrel: No loading dose, clopidogrel daily
    • Patients who did not receive a loading dose of clopidogrel and PCI is performed ≤ 24 hours after fibrinolytic therapy: loading dose of 300 mg clopidogrel
    • Patients who did not receive a loading dose of clopidogrel and PCI is performed > 24 hours after fibrinolytic therapy: loading dose of 600 mg clopidogrel
    • Patients who did not receive a loading dose of clopidogrel and PCI is performed >24 hours after therapy with fibrin specific agent, or >48 hours after therapy with a non-fibrin-specific agent: prasugrel 60 mg
  • Recommend a long term maintenance dose of 81 mg of aspirin when the patient is administered ticagrelor.

Don'ts

  • Do not administer IV GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors to patients with low risk of ischemic events or at high risk of bleeding and who are already on aspirin and P2Y12 receptor inhibitors therapy.
  • Do not delay the time for reperfusion.
  • Do not administer prasugrel among patients with any of the following:

Gallery

Shown below is an EKG demonstrating the evolution of an infarct on the EKG. ST elevation, Q wave formation, T wave inversion, normalization with a persistent Q wave suggest STEMI.

Copyleft image obtained courtesy of ECGpedia, http://en.ecgpedia.org/wiki/File:AMI_evolutie.png


Shown below is an EKG demonstrating loss of R waves throughout the anterior wall (V1-V6). QS complexes in V3-V5. ST elevation in V1-V5 with terminal negative T waves.

Copyleft image obtained courtesy of, http://en.ecgpedia.org/wiki/Main_Page


Shown below is an EKG demonstrating ST elevation in leads II, III and aVF and ST depression in leads V1, V2 and V3 depicting a posterior MI.


Shown below is an EKG demonstrating acute MI in a patient with LBBB

Copyleft image obtained courtesy of, http://en.ecgpedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

References

  1. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 O'Gara, Patrick T.; Kushner, Frederick G.; Ascheim, Deborah D.; Casey, Donald E.; Chung, Mina K.; de Lemos, James A.; Ettinger, Steven M.; Fang, James C.; Fesmire, Francis M.; Franklin, Barry A.; Granger, Christopher B.; Krumholz, Harlan M.; Linderbaum, Jane A.; Morrow, David A.; Newby, L. Kristin; Ornato, Joseph P.; Ou, Narith; Radford, Martha J.; Tamis-Holland, Jacqueline E.; Tommaso, Carl L.; Tracy, Cynthia M.; Woo, Y. Joseph; Zhao, David X. (2013). "2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 61 (4): e78–e140. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2012.11.019. ISSN 0735-1097.
  2. Wang-Clow F, Fox NL, Cannon CP, Gibson CM, Berioli S, Bluhmki E; et al. (2001). "Determination of a weight-adjusted dose of TNK-tissue plasminogen activator". Am Heart J. 141 (1): 33–40. doi:10.1067/mhj.2001.112092. PMID 11136484.
  3. Epstein AE, Dimarco JP, Ellenbogen KA, Estes NA, Freedman RA, Gettes LS; et al. (2008). "ACC/AHA/HRS 2008 guidelines for Device-Based Therapy of Cardiac Rhythm Abnormalities: executive summary". Heart Rhythm. 5 (6): 934–55. doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2008.04.015. PMID 18534377.
  4. Kaplan K, Davison R, Parker M, Przybylek J, Teagarden JR, Lesch M (1983). "Intravenous nitroglycerin for the treatment of angina at rest unresponsive to standard nitrate therapy". Am J Cardiol. 51 (5): 694–8. PMID 6402912.
  5. Trelle S, Reichenbach S, Wandel S, Hildebrand P, Tschannen B, Villiger PM; et al. (2011). "Cardiovascular safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: network meta-analysis". BMJ. 342: c7086. doi:10.1136/bmj.c7086. PMC 3019238. PMID 21224324. Review in: Evid Based Med. 2011 Oct;16(5):142-3
  6. Coxib and traditional NSAID Trialists' (CNT) Collaboration. Bhala N, Emberson J, Merhi A, Abramson S, Arber N; et al. (2013). "Vascular and upper gastrointestinal effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: meta-analyses of individual participant data from randomised trials". Lancet. 382 (9894): 769–79. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60900-9. PMC 3778977. PMID 23726390. Review in: Ann Intern Med. 2013 Oct 15;159(8):JC12
  7. "http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=5fe9c118-c44b-48d7-a142-9668ae3df0c6". Retrieved 6 February 2014. External link in |title= (help)


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