Proteus infection pathophysiology: Difference between revisions
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{{CMG}} | {{CMG}} | ||
==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
''Proteus'' is part of the normal human gastrointestinal flora and is usually associated with development of urinary tract infections (most common), pnuemonia, and local wound infections by self-contamination. Following self-contamination, ''Proteus'' accesses the urinary tract through the urethra and overproduces flagella (transforms from swimmer to swarmer) to ascend in a retrograde manner to the upper urinary tract. In the bladder, ''Proteus'' uses fimbriae and adhesins to bind to mucosal surfaces. To avoid host defenses, ''Proteus'' produces virulence factors, such as IgA-degrading protease, hemolysin, and urease. As urease is produced, urea is hydrolyzed to ammonia and carbon dioxide, resulting in the increase in the local pH of the urinary tract and precipitation of magnesium and calcium ions. As ions precipitate, strutive (magnesium ammonium phosphate) stones form and epxand, giving ''Proteus'' the capacity to sequester within the stone cavities and to protect itself against the host defenses and antimicrobial agents. | |||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
===Colonization=== | ===Colonization=== | ||
*''Proteus'' is part of the normal human | *''Proteus'' is part of the normal human gastrointestinal flora and is usually associated with development of urinary tract infections (most common), pnuemonia, and local wound infections by self-contamination. | ||
*Following self-contamination, ''Proteus'' accesses the urinary tract through the urethra and uses flagella to ascend in a retrograde manner to the upper urinary tract.<ref name="pmid26542036">{{cite journal| author=Schaffer JN, Pearson MM| title=Proteus mirabilis and Urinary Tract Infections. | journal=Microbiol Spectr | year= 2015 | volume= 3 | issue= 5 | pages= | pmid=26542036 | doi=10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0017-2013 | pmc=PMC4638163 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26542036 }} </ref> | |||
*During the motility process, the production of flagella markedly increases, and the organism changes from a single-cell, rod-shaped form (swimmer) to a multi-cell, elongated-form (swarmer).<ref name="pmid11099936">{{cite journal| author=Coker C, Poore CA, Li X, Mobley HL| title=Pathogenesis of Proteus mirabilis urinary tract infection. | journal=Microbes Infect | year= 2000 | volume= 2 | issue= 12 | pages= 1497-505 | pmid=11099936 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11099936 }} </ref><ref name="pmid26542036">{{cite journal| author=Schaffer JN, Pearson MM| title=Proteus mirabilis and Urinary Tract Infections. | journal=Microbiol Spectr | year= 2015 | volume= 3 | issue= 5 | pages= | pmid=26542036 | doi=10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0017-2013 | pmc=PMC4638163 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26542036 }} </ref> | *During the motility process, the production of flagella markedly increases, and the organism changes from a single-cell, rod-shaped form (swimmer) to a multi-cell, elongated-form (swarmer).<ref name="pmid11099936">{{cite journal| author=Coker C, Poore CA, Li X, Mobley HL| title=Pathogenesis of Proteus mirabilis urinary tract infection. | journal=Microbes Infect | year= 2000 | volume= 2 | issue= 12 | pages= 1497-505 | pmid=11099936 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11099936 }} </ref><ref name="pmid26542036">{{cite journal| author=Schaffer JN, Pearson MM| title=Proteus mirabilis and Urinary Tract Infections. | journal=Microbiol Spectr | year= 2015 | volume= 3 | issue= 5 | pages= | pmid=26542036 | doi=10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0017-2013 | pmc=PMC4638163 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26542036 }} </ref> | ||
*In the bladder, ''Proteus'' uses fimbriae and adhesins to bind to mucosal surfaces:<ref name="pmid26542036">{{cite journal| author=Schaffer JN, Pearson MM| title=Proteus mirabilis and Urinary Tract Infections. | journal=Microbiol Spectr | year= 2015 | volume= 3 | issue= 5 | pages= | pmid=26542036 | doi=10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0017-2013 | pmc=PMC4638163 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26542036 }} </ref> | *In the bladder, ''Proteus'' uses fimbriae and adhesins to bind to mucosal surfaces:<ref name="pmid26542036">{{cite journal| author=Schaffer JN, Pearson MM| title=Proteus mirabilis and Urinary Tract Infections. | journal=Microbiol Spectr | year= 2015 | volume= 3 | issue= 5 | pages= | pmid=26542036 | doi=10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0017-2013 | pmc=PMC4638163 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26542036 }} </ref> | ||
| Line 14: | Line 17: | ||
:*P-like pilus | :*P-like pilus | ||
===Evasion of Host Defenses=== | ===Evasion of Host Defenses=== | ||
*There are four mechanisms by which ''Proteus'' can use to evade the host defenses:<ref name=" | *There are four mechanisms by which ''Proteus'' can use to evade the host defenses:<ref name="pmid26542036">{{cite journal| author=Schaffer JN, Pearson MM| title=Proteus mirabilis and Urinary Tract Infections. | journal=Microbiol Spectr | year= 2015 | volume= 3 | issue= 5 | pages= | pmid=26542036 | doi=10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0017-2013 | pmc=PMC4638163 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26542036 }} </ref><ref name="pmid11099936">{{cite journal| author=Coker C, Poore CA, Li X, Mobley HL| title=Pathogenesis of Proteus mirabilis urinary tract infection. | journal=Microbes Infect | year= 2000 | volume= 2 | issue= 12 | pages= 1497-505 | pmid=11099936 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11099936 }} </ref> | ||
:*Production of an IgA-degrading protease which functions to cleave the secretory IgA. | :*Production of an IgA-degrading protease which functions to cleave the secretory IgA. | ||
:*Expression of flagellin to synthesize flagella that provides the characteristic swarming motility of ''Proteus''. | :*Expression of flagellin to synthesize flagella that provides the characteristic swarming motility of ''Proteus''. | ||
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:*Production of urease (increases pH) to provide an adequate medium for bacterial growth. Urease production is also associated with stone formation in the kidneys and the bladder.<ref name="pmid815197">{{cite journal| author=Griffith DP, Musher DM, Itin C| title=Urease. The primary cause of infection-induced urinary stones. | journal=Invest Urol | year= 1976 | volume= 13 | issue= 5 | pages= 346-50 | pmid=815197 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=815197 }} </ref> | :*Production of urease (increases pH) to provide an adequate medium for bacterial growth. Urease production is also associated with stone formation in the kidneys and the bladder.<ref name="pmid815197">{{cite journal| author=Griffith DP, Musher DM, Itin C| title=Urease. The primary cause of infection-induced urinary stones. | journal=Invest Urol | year= 1976 | volume= 13 | issue= 5 | pages= 346-50 | pmid=815197 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=815197 }} </ref> | ||
: Production of hemolysin, a cytotoxin involved in injury of host epithelial cells are known to cause damage to host epithelial cells. As mentioned above, urease can damage host epithelial cells through the formation of stones. Hemolysin damages cells | : Production of hemolysin, a cytotoxin involved in injury of host epithelial cells are known to cause damage to host epithelial cells. As mentioned above, urease can damage host epithelial cells through the formation of stones. Hemolysin damages cells | ||
=== | |||
===Formation of Stones / Staghorn Calculi=== | |||
*''Proteus'' produces urease, which catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea tot ammonia and carbon dioxide.<ref name="pmid7565414">{{cite journal| author=Mobley HL, Island MD, Hausinger RP| title=Molecular biology of microbial ureases. | journal=Microbiol Rev | year= 1995 | volume= 59 | issue= 3 | pages= 451-80 | pmid=7565414 | doi= | pmc=PMC239369 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7565414 }} </ref> | *''Proteus'' produces urease, which catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea tot ammonia and carbon dioxide.<ref name="pmid7565414">{{cite journal| author=Mobley HL, Island MD, Hausinger RP| title=Molecular biology of microbial ureases. | journal=Microbiol Rev | year= 1995 | volume= 59 | issue= 3 | pages= 451-80 | pmid=7565414 | doi= | pmc=PMC239369 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7565414 }} </ref> | ||
*The ammonia results in an increase in the local pH of the urinary tract, resulting in the precipitation of magnesium and calcium ions and subsequent formation of struvite (composed of magnesium ammonioum phosphate) and carbonate hydroxyapatite stones.<ref name="pmid7565414">{{cite journal| author=Mobley HL, Island MD, Hausinger RP| title=Molecular biology of microbial ureases. | journal=Microbiol Rev | year= 1995 | volume= 59 | issue= 3 | pages= 451-80 | pmid=7565414 | doi= | pmc=PMC239369 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7565414 }} </ref><ref name="pmid8005688">{{cite journal| author=Dumanski AJ, Hedelin H, Edin-Liljegren A, Beauchemin D, McLean RJ| title=Unique ability of the Proteus mirabilis capsule to enhance mineral growth in infectious urinary calculi. | journal=Infect Immun | year= 1994 | volume= 62 | issue= 7 | pages= 2998-3003 | pmid=8005688 | doi= | pmc=PMC302911 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8005688 }} </ref><ref name="pmid815197">{{cite journal| author=Griffith DP, Musher DM, Itin C| title=Urease. The primary cause of infection-induced urinary stones. | journal=Invest Urol | year= 1976 | volume= 13 | issue= 5 | pages= 346-50 | pmid=815197 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=815197 }} </ref> | *The ammonia results in an increase in the local pH of the urinary tract, resulting in the precipitation of magnesium and calcium ions and subsequent formation of struvite (composed of magnesium ammonioum phosphate) and carbonate hydroxyapatite stones.<ref name="pmid7565414">{{cite journal| author=Mobley HL, Island MD, Hausinger RP| title=Molecular biology of microbial ureases. | journal=Microbiol Rev | year= 1995 | volume= 59 | issue= 3 | pages= 451-80 | pmid=7565414 | doi= | pmc=PMC239369 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7565414 }} </ref><ref name="pmid8005688">{{cite journal| author=Dumanski AJ, Hedelin H, Edin-Liljegren A, Beauchemin D, McLean RJ| title=Unique ability of the Proteus mirabilis capsule to enhance mineral growth in infectious urinary calculi. | journal=Infect Immun | year= 1994 | volume= 62 | issue= 7 | pages= 2998-3003 | pmid=8005688 | doi= | pmc=PMC302911 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8005688 }} </ref><ref name="pmid815197">{{cite journal| author=Griffith DP, Musher DM, Itin C| title=Urease. The primary cause of infection-induced urinary stones. | journal=Invest Urol | year= 1976 | volume= 13 | issue= 5 | pages= 346-50 | pmid=815197 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=815197 }} </ref> | ||
*''Proteus'' is able to sequester in the stone cavities and replicate while avoiding host defenses and therapeutic agents.<ref name="pmid8005688">{{cite journal| author=Dumanski AJ, Hedelin H, Edin-Liljegren A, Beauchemin D, McLean RJ| title=Unique ability of the Proteus mirabilis capsule to enhance mineral growth in infectious urinary calculi. | journal=Infect Immun | year= 1994 | volume= 62 | issue= 7 | pages= 2998-3003 | pmid=8005688 | doi= | pmc=PMC302911 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8005688 }} </ref> | *''Proteus'' is able to sequester in the stone cavities and replicate while avoiding host defenses and therapeutic agents.<ref name="pmid8005688">{{cite journal| author=Dumanski AJ, Hedelin H, Edin-Liljegren A, Beauchemin D, McLean RJ| title=Unique ability of the Proteus mirabilis capsule to enhance mineral growth in infectious urinary calculi. | journal=Infect Immun | year= 1994 | volume= 62 | issue= 7 | pages= 2998-3003 | pmid=8005688 | doi= | pmc=PMC302911 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8005688 }} </ref> | ||
*As the infection persists or as the human host is re-infected, the existing stone expands and occasionally blocks the urinary tract completely. Large stones are referred to as ''Staghorn calculi'', given their resemblance to the horns of a stag (adult male deer). | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|2}} | {{Reflist|2}} | ||
Latest revision as of 19:18, 28 January 2016
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
Overview
Proteus is part of the normal human gastrointestinal flora and is usually associated with development of urinary tract infections (most common), pnuemonia, and local wound infections by self-contamination. Following self-contamination, Proteus accesses the urinary tract through the urethra and overproduces flagella (transforms from swimmer to swarmer) to ascend in a retrograde manner to the upper urinary tract. In the bladder, Proteus uses fimbriae and adhesins to bind to mucosal surfaces. To avoid host defenses, Proteus produces virulence factors, such as IgA-degrading protease, hemolysin, and urease. As urease is produced, urea is hydrolyzed to ammonia and carbon dioxide, resulting in the increase in the local pH of the urinary tract and precipitation of magnesium and calcium ions. As ions precipitate, strutive (magnesium ammonium phosphate) stones form and epxand, giving Proteus the capacity to sequester within the stone cavities and to protect itself against the host defenses and antimicrobial agents.
Pathophysiology
Colonization
- Proteus is part of the normal human gastrointestinal flora and is usually associated with development of urinary tract infections (most common), pnuemonia, and local wound infections by self-contamination.
- Following self-contamination, Proteus accesses the urinary tract through the urethra and uses flagella to ascend in a retrograde manner to the upper urinary tract.[1]
- During the motility process, the production of flagella markedly increases, and the organism changes from a single-cell, rod-shaped form (swimmer) to a multi-cell, elongated-form (swarmer).[2][1]
- In the bladder, Proteus uses fimbriae and adhesins to bind to mucosal surfaces:[1]
- Mannose-resistant fimbriae (MRF)
- P. mirabilis fimbriae (PMF)
- Ambient temperature fimbiae
- Non-agglutinating fimbiae
- P-like pilus
Evasion of Host Defenses
- Production of an IgA-degrading protease which functions to cleave the secretory IgA.
- Expression of flagellin to synthesize flagella that provides the characteristic swarming motility of Proteus.
- Expression of the MR/P fimbriae
- Production of urease (increases pH) to provide an adequate medium for bacterial growth. Urease production is also associated with stone formation in the kidneys and the bladder.[3]
- Production of hemolysin, a cytotoxin involved in injury of host epithelial cells are known to cause damage to host epithelial cells. As mentioned above, urease can damage host epithelial cells through the formation of stones. Hemolysin damages cells
Formation of Stones / Staghorn Calculi
- Proteus produces urease, which catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea tot ammonia and carbon dioxide.[4]
- The ammonia results in an increase in the local pH of the urinary tract, resulting in the precipitation of magnesium and calcium ions and subsequent formation of struvite (composed of magnesium ammonioum phosphate) and carbonate hydroxyapatite stones.[4][5][3]
- Proteus is able to sequester in the stone cavities and replicate while avoiding host defenses and therapeutic agents.[5]
- As the infection persists or as the human host is re-infected, the existing stone expands and occasionally blocks the urinary tract completely. Large stones are referred to as Staghorn calculi, given their resemblance to the horns of a stag (adult male deer).
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Schaffer JN, Pearson MM (2015). "Proteus mirabilis and Urinary Tract Infections". Microbiol Spectr. 3 (5). doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0017-2013. PMC 4638163. PMID 26542036.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Coker C, Poore CA, Li X, Mobley HL (2000). "Pathogenesis of Proteus mirabilis urinary tract infection". Microbes Infect. 2 (12): 1497–505. PMID 11099936.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Griffith DP, Musher DM, Itin C (1976). "Urease. The primary cause of infection-induced urinary stones". Invest Urol. 13 (5): 346–50. PMID 815197.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Mobley HL, Island MD, Hausinger RP (1995). "Molecular biology of microbial ureases". Microbiol Rev. 59 (3): 451–80. PMC 239369. PMID 7565414.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Dumanski AJ, Hedelin H, Edin-Liljegren A, Beauchemin D, McLean RJ (1994). "Unique ability of the Proteus mirabilis capsule to enhance mineral growth in infectious urinary calculi". Infect Immun. 62 (7): 2998–3003. PMC 302911. PMID 8005688.