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==Overview==
==Overview==
Intracerebral hemorrhage is a medical emergency requiring urgent [[diagnosis]] and treatment. If left untreated, it may result in irreversible brain tissue damage. causing permanent neurological deficit and death.<ref name="caplan">{{cite journal | author=  Caplan LR | title=  Intracerebral hemorrhage | journal=  Lancet | year=1992 | pages=656-8 | volume=339 | issue=8794 | id=PMID 1347346}}</ref><ref name="pmid23920015">{{cite journal| author=van Asch CJ, Velthuis BK, Greving JP, van Laar PJ, Rinkel GJ, Algra A et al.| title=External validation of the secondary intracerebral hemorrhage score in The Netherlands. | journal=Stroke | year= 2013 | volume= 44 | issue= 10 | pages= 2904-6 | pmid=23920015 | doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.002386 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23920015  }} </ref> The most common complications following [[Intracerebral hemorrhage|intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)]] include hematoma expansion[[Venous thromboembolism|, venous thromboembolism (VTE)]], [[pneumonia]], [[Aspiration|apiration]], [[Respiratory failure|respiratory failure/distress]] [[pulmonary embolism]], [[sepsis]], neurogenic [[pulmonary edema|pulmonary edema,]] [[acute respiratory distress syndrome]], and [[acute kidney injury]].<ref name="pmid23760151" /><ref name="pmid19461032" /><ref name="pmid17855672" />
Despite aggressive and newer management strategies, the prognosis of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage is very poor. The main powerful predictor of 30-day mortality and morbidity in patients with spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage is a volume of hemorrhage in combination with the initial [[Glasgow Coma Scale|Glasgow Coma Scale score (GCS]]).<ref name="pmid1527534">{{cite journal| author=Franke CL, van Swieten JC, Algra A, van Gijn J| title=Prognostic factors in patients with intracerebral haematoma. | journal=J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry | year= 1992 | volume= 55 | issue= 8 | pages= 653-7 | pmid=1527534 | doi= | pmc=489199 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1527534  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8322400">{{cite journal| author=Broderick JP, Brott TG, Duldner JE, Tomsick T, Huster G| title=Volume of intracerebral hemorrhage. A powerful and easy-to-use predictor of 30-day mortality. | journal=Stroke | year= 1993 | volume= 24 | issue= 7 | pages= 987-93 | pmid=8322400 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8322400  }} </ref>


==Natural history==
==Natural history==
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is bleeding directly into the brain tissue, forming a gradually enlarging [[hematoma]] (pooling of blood). The hematoma enlarges until pressure from surrounding tissue limits its growth, or until it decompresses by emptying into the [[ventricular system]], [[cerebrospinal fluid|CSF]] or the [[pia]]l surface. ICH has a [[mortality rate]] of 44 percent after 30 days, higher than ischemic stroke or even the very deadly [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]].<ref name="caplan">{{cite journal | author= Caplan LR | title= Intracerebral hemorrhage | journal=   Lancet | year=1992 | pages=656-8 | volume=339 | issue=8794 | id=PMID 1347346}}</ref><ref name="pmid23920015">{{cite journal| author=van Asch CJ, Velthuis BK, Greving JP, van Laar PJ, Rinkel GJ, Algra A et al.| title=External validation of the secondary intracerebral hemorrhage score in The Netherlands. | journal=Stroke | year= 2013 | volume= 44 | issue= 10 | pages= 2904-6 | pmid=23920015 | doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.002386 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23920015 }} </ref>
Intracerebral hemorrhage is a medical emergency requiring urgent [[diagnosis]] and treatment. If left untreated, it may result in irreversible brain tissue damage. causing permanent neurological deficit and death. ICH has a [[mortality rate]] of 44 percent after 30 days, higher than [[ischemic stroke]] or even the very deadly [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]].<ref name="caplan" /><ref name="pmid23920015" /> [[Massive hemorrhage]] may occur when the patients have a bleeding disorder and clotting system is unable to control the bleeding.<ref name="pmid1633473">{{cite journal| author=Garcia JH, Ho KL| title=Pathology of hypertensive arteriopathy. | journal=Neurosurg Clin N Am | year= 1992 | volume= 3 | issue= 3 | pages= 497-507 | pmid=1633473 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1633473  }}</ref> The hematoma enlarges until pressure from surrounding tissue limits its growth, or until it decompresses by emptying into the [[ventricular system]], [[cerebrospinal fluid|CSF]] or the [[pial]] surface. <ref name="pmid8996478">{{cite journal| author=Brott T, Broderick J, Kothari R, Barsan W, Tomsick T, Sauerbeck L et al.| title=Early hemorrhage growth in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage. | journal=Stroke | year= 1997 | volume= 28 | issue= 1 | pages= 1-5 | pmid=8996478 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8996478  }} </ref><ref name="pmid2812332">{{cite journal| author=Chen ST, Chen SD, Hsu CY, Hogan EL| title=Progression of hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage. | journal=Neurology | year= 1989 | volume= 39 | issue= 11 | pages= 1509-14 | pmid=2812332 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2812332  }} </ref>
 
The frequency of medical complications after intracerebral hemorrhage is high, although there is substantially more information reported for [[ischemic stroke]] than [[Intracerebral hemorrhage|intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)]].<ref name="pmid22172625">{{cite journal| author=Balami JS, Buchan AM| title=Complications of intracerebral haemorrhage. | journal=Lancet Neurol | year= 2012 | volume= 11 | issue= 1 | pages= 101-18 | pmid=22172625 | doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70264-2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22172625 }} </ref>


==Complications==
==Complications==
The frequency of medical complications after acute stroke is high, although there is substantially more information reported for ischemic stroke than [[Intracerebral hemorrhage|intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)]].
The most common complications following [[Intracerebral hemorrhage|intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)]] include:<ref name="pmid23760151">{{cite journal| author=Elmer J, Hou P, Wilcox SR, Chang Y, Schreiber H, Okechukwu I et al.| title=Acute respiratory distress syndrome after spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage*. | journal=Crit Care Med | year= 2013 | volume= 41 | issue= 8 | pages= 1992-2001 | pmid=23760151 | doi=10.1097/CCM.0b013e31828a3f4d | pmc=3752686 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23760151  }} </ref><ref name="pmid19461032">{{cite journal| author=Oleinik A, Romero JM, Schwab K, Lev MH, Jhawar N, Delgado Almandoz JE et al.| title=CT angiography for intracerebral hemorrhage does not increase risk of acute nephropathy. | journal=Stroke | year= 2009 | volume= 40 | issue= 7 | pages= 2393-7 | pmid=19461032 | doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.546127 | pmc=2726774 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19461032  }} </ref><ref name="pmid17855672">{{cite journal| author=Malhotra A| title=Low-tidal-volume ventilation in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2007 | volume= 357 | issue= 11 | pages= 1113-20 | pmid=17855672 | doi=10.1056/NEJMct074213 | pmc=2287190 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17855672 }} </ref><ref name="pmid22172625">{{cite journal| author=Balami JS, Buchan AM| title=Complications of intracerebral haemorrhage. | journal=Lancet Neurol | year= 2012 | volume= 11 | issue= 1 | pages= 101-18 | pmid=22172625 | doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70264-2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22172625 }} </ref>
 
The most common complications following [[Intracerebral hemorrhage|intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)]] include:<ref name="pmid23760151">{{cite journal| author=Elmer J, Hou P, Wilcox SR, Chang Y, Schreiber H, Okechukwu I et al.| title=Acute respiratory distress syndrome after spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage*. | journal=Crit Care Med | year= 2013 | volume= 41 | issue= 8 | pages= 1992-2001 | pmid=23760151 | doi=10.1097/CCM.0b013e31828a3f4d | pmc=3752686 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23760151  }} </ref><ref name="pmid19461032">{{cite journal| author=Oleinik A, Romero JM, Schwab K, Lev MH, Jhawar N, Delgado Almandoz JE et al.| title=CT angiography for intracerebral hemorrhage does not increase risk of acute nephropathy. | journal=Stroke | year= 2009 | volume= 40 | issue= 7 | pages= 2393-7 | pmid=19461032 | doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.546127 | pmc=2726774 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19461032  }} </ref><ref name="pmid17855672">{{cite journal| author=Malhotra A| title=Low-tidal-volume ventilation in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2007 | volume= 357 | issue= 11 | pages= 1113-20 | pmid=17855672 | doi=10.1056/NEJMct074213 | pmc=2287190 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17855672  }} </ref>
*Hematoma expansion
*Hematoma expansion
*[[Venous thromboembolism|Venous thromboembolism (VTE)]]  
*[[Venous thromboembolism|Venous thromboembolism (VTE)]]  
**[[Deep vein thrombosis|eep vein thrombosis (DVT)]]
**[[Deep vein thrombosis|Deep vein thrombosis (DVT)]]
**[[Pulmonary embolism|Pulmonary embolism (PE)]]
**[[Pulmonary embolism|Pulmonary embolism (PE)]]
*[[Pneumonia]] (5.6%)
*[[Pneumonia]]
*[[Aspiration]] (2.6%)
*[[Aspiration]]
*[[Respiratory failure|Respiratory failure/distress]] (2%)
*[[Respiratory failure|Respiratory failure/distress]]  
*[[Pulmonary embolism]]
*[[Pulmonary embolism]]
*[[Sepsis]]  
*[[Sepsis]]  
*Neurogenic [[pulmonary edema]]
*Neurogenic [[pulmonary edema]]
*[[Acute respiratory distress syndrome]]
*[[Acute respiratory distress syndrome]]
*[[Acute kidney injury]], hyponatremia
*[[Acute kidney injury]]
*[[Gastrointestinal bleeding]]
*[[Gastrointestinal bleeding]]
*Impaired nutritional status
*Impaired nutritional status
Line 34: Line 37:
===Prognostic factors===
===Prognostic factors===
*Despite aggressive and newer management strategies, the prognosis of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage is very poor. However, some studies suggested that excellent medical care has a direct impact on [[intracerebral hemorrhage|intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)]] morbidity and mortality.<ref name="pmid15044768">{{cite journal| author=Hemphill JC, Newman J, Zhao S, Johnston SC| title=Hospital usage of early do-not-resuscitate orders and outcome after intracerebral hemorrhage. | journal=Stroke | year= 2004 | volume= 35 | issue= 5 | pages= 1130-4 | pmid=15044768 | doi=10.1161/01.STR.0000125858.71051.ca | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15044768  }} </ref>
*Despite aggressive and newer management strategies, the prognosis of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage is very poor. However, some studies suggested that excellent medical care has a direct impact on [[intracerebral hemorrhage|intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)]] morbidity and mortality.<ref name="pmid15044768">{{cite journal| author=Hemphill JC, Newman J, Zhao S, Johnston SC| title=Hospital usage of early do-not-resuscitate orders and outcome after intracerebral hemorrhage. | journal=Stroke | year= 2004 | volume= 35 | issue= 5 | pages= 1130-4 | pmid=15044768 | doi=10.1161/01.STR.0000125858.71051.ca | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15044768  }} </ref>
*The main powerful predictor of 30-day mortality and morbidity in patients with spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage is a volume of hemorrhage in combination with the initial [[Glasgow Coma Scale|Glasgow Coma Scale score (GCS]]).<ref name="pmid1527534" /><ref name="pmid8322400" />
*Case-fatality at 1 month is over 40 % and has not improved in last few decades.<ref name="pmid0056489">{{cite journal| author=Apanasenko BG, Kunitsyn AI, Isaev GA, Khodyrev LP| title=[Determination of the weight of disemulsified lipid circulating in the blood as a method of diagnosis of fat embolism]. | journal=Lab Delo | year= 1976 | volume=  | issue= 1 | pages= 41-3 | pmid=0056489 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=56489  }} </ref>
*Case-fatality at 1 month is over 40 % and has not improved in last few decades.<ref name="pmid0056489">{{cite journal| author=Apanasenko BG, Kunitsyn AI, Isaev GA, Khodyrev LP| title=[Determination of the weight of disemulsified lipid circulating in the blood as a method of diagnosis of fat embolism]. | journal=Lab Delo | year= 1976 | volume=  | issue= 1 | pages= 41-3 | pmid=0056489 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=56489  }} </ref>
Prognsostic factors in [[Intracerebral hemorrhage]] include:<ref name=Tuhrim> Tuhrim S, Horowitz DR, Sacher M, Godbold JH. Volume of ventricular blood is an important determinant of outcome in supratentorial intracere- bral hemorrhage. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:617–621.</ref>
Prognsostic factors in [[Intracerebral hemorrhage]] may include:<ref name=Tuhrim> Tuhrim S, Horowitz DR, Sacher M, Godbold JH. Volume of ventricular blood is an important determinant of outcome in supratentorial intracere- bral hemorrhage. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:617–621.</ref>


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*IVH occurs in approximately 45% of patients with spontaneous ICH and is an independent factor associated with poor outcome
*IVH occurs in approximately 45% of patients with spontaneous ICH and is an independent factor associated with poor outcome
*Following conditions are associated with a higher risk of death in patient with IVH<ref name="pmid18320145">{{cite journal| author=Flint AC, Roebken A, Singh V| title=Primary intraventricular hemorrhage: yield of diagnostic angiography and clinical outcome. | journal=Neurocrit Care | year= 2008 | volume= 8 | issue= 3 | pages= 330-6 | pmid=18320145 | doi=10.1007/s12028-008-9070-2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18320145  }} </ref><ref name="pmid12865003">{{cite journal| author=Engelhard HH, Andrews CO, Slavin KV, Charbel FT| title=Current management of intraventricular hemorrhage. | journal=Surg Neurol | year= 2003 | volume= 60 | issue= 1 | pages= 15-21; discussion 21-2 | pmid=12865003 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12865003  }} </ref>
**Advanced age
**Underlying [[coagulopathy]]
**[[Glasgow coma scale score]] ≤ 8
**[[Hydrocephalus]]
**Large volume of blood in the third ventricle
|}
|}


Latest revision as of 03:26, 4 December 2016

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sara Mehrsefat, M.D. [2]

Overview

Intracerebral hemorrhage is a medical emergency requiring urgent diagnosis and treatment. If left untreated, it may result in irreversible brain tissue damage. causing permanent neurological deficit and death.[1][2] The most common complications following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) include hematoma expansion, venous thromboembolism (VTE), pneumonia, apiration, respiratory failure/distress pulmonary embolism, sepsis, neurogenic pulmonary edema, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and acute kidney injury.[3][4][5]

Despite aggressive and newer management strategies, the prognosis of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage is very poor. The main powerful predictor of 30-day mortality and morbidity in patients with spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage is a volume of hemorrhage in combination with the initial Glasgow Coma Scale score (GCS).[6][7]

Natural history

Intracerebral hemorrhage is a medical emergency requiring urgent diagnosis and treatment. If left untreated, it may result in irreversible brain tissue damage. causing permanent neurological deficit and death. ICH has a mortality rate of 44 percent after 30 days, higher than ischemic stroke or even the very deadly subarachnoid hemorrhage.[1][2] Massive hemorrhage may occur when the patients have a bleeding disorder and clotting system is unable to control the bleeding.[8] The hematoma enlarges until pressure from surrounding tissue limits its growth, or until it decompresses by emptying into the ventricular system, CSF or the pial surface. [9][10]

The frequency of medical complications after intracerebral hemorrhage is high, although there is substantially more information reported for ischemic stroke than intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH).[11]

Complications

The most common complications following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) include:[3][4][5][11]

Approximately 50% of deaths after stroke are attributed to medical complications, usually after 7 days of hospitalization. Stroke patients who experience medical complications while in the hospital have increased mortality up to 4 years after the initial event.

Prognosis

Prognostic factors

  • Despite aggressive and newer management strategies, the prognosis of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage is very poor. However, some studies suggested that excellent medical care has a direct impact on intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) morbidity and mortality.[12]
  • The main powerful predictor of 30-day mortality and morbidity in patients with spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage is a volume of hemorrhage in combination with the initial Glasgow Coma Scale score (GCS).[6][7]
  • Case-fatality at 1 month is over 40 % and has not improved in last few decades.[13]

Prognsostic factors in Intracerebral hemorrhage may include:[14]

Poor prognostic factors Associations
Fever[15]
  • Associated with early neurologic deterioration
Higher initial blood pressure[16]
  • Associated with early neurologic deterioration and increased mortality
Higher creatinine[17]
Higher serum glucose[16]
  • Associated with hematoma expansion and worse outcome
Warfarin-related hemorrhages[18][19]
  • Associated with an increased hematoma volume, greater risk of expansion, and increased morbidity and mortality
Warfarin therapy with an INR >3[20]
  • Associated with larger initial hemorrhage volume as well as poorer outcomes
Intraventricular hemorrhage[21][22]
  • IVH occurs in approximately 45% of patients with spontaneous ICH and is an independent factor associated with poor outcome
  • Following conditions are associated with a higher risk of death in patient with IVH[23][24]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Caplan LR (1992). "Intracerebral hemorrhage". Lancet. 339 (8794): 656–8. PMID 1347346.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 van Asch CJ, Velthuis BK, Greving JP, van Laar PJ, Rinkel GJ, Algra A; et al. (2013). "External validation of the secondary intracerebral hemorrhage score in The Netherlands". Stroke. 44 (10): 2904–6. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.002386. PMID 23920015.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Elmer J, Hou P, Wilcox SR, Chang Y, Schreiber H, Okechukwu I; et al. (2013). "Acute respiratory distress syndrome after spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage*". Crit Care Med. 41 (8): 1992–2001. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e31828a3f4d. PMC 3752686. PMID 23760151.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Oleinik A, Romero JM, Schwab K, Lev MH, Jhawar N, Delgado Almandoz JE; et al. (2009). "CT angiography for intracerebral hemorrhage does not increase risk of acute nephropathy". Stroke. 40 (7): 2393–7. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.546127. PMC 2726774. PMID 19461032.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Malhotra A (2007). "Low-tidal-volume ventilation in the acute respiratory distress syndrome". N Engl J Med. 357 (11): 1113–20. doi:10.1056/NEJMct074213. PMC 2287190. PMID 17855672.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Franke CL, van Swieten JC, Algra A, van Gijn J (1992). "Prognostic factors in patients with intracerebral haematoma". J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 55 (8): 653–7. PMC 489199. PMID 1527534.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Broderick JP, Brott TG, Duldner JE, Tomsick T, Huster G (1993). "Volume of intracerebral hemorrhage. A powerful and easy-to-use predictor of 30-day mortality". Stroke. 24 (7): 987–93. PMID 8322400.
  8. ↑ Garcia JH, Ho KL (1992). "Pathology of hypertensive arteriopathy". Neurosurg Clin N Am. 3 (3): 497–507. PMID 1633473.
  9. ↑ Brott T, Broderick J, Kothari R, Barsan W, Tomsick T, Sauerbeck L; et al. (1997). "Early hemorrhage growth in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage". Stroke. 28 (1): 1–5. PMID 8996478.
  10. ↑ Chen ST, Chen SD, Hsu CY, Hogan EL (1989). "Progression of hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage". Neurology. 39 (11): 1509–14. PMID 2812332.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Balami JS, Buchan AM (2012). "Complications of intracerebral haemorrhage". Lancet Neurol. 11 (1): 101–18. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70264-2. PMID 22172625.
  12. ↑ Hemphill JC, Newman J, Zhao S, Johnston SC (2004). "Hospital usage of early do-not-resuscitate orders and outcome after intracerebral hemorrhage". Stroke. 35 (5): 1130–4. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000125858.71051.ca. PMID 15044768.
  13. ↑ Apanasenko BG, Kunitsyn AI, Isaev GA, Khodyrev LP (1976). "[Determination of the weight of disemulsified lipid circulating in the blood as a method of diagnosis of fat embolism]". Lab Delo (1): 41–3. PMID 0056489.
  14. ↑ Tuhrim S, Horowitz DR, Sacher M, Godbold JH. Volume of ventricular blood is an important determinant of outcome in supratentorial intracere- bral hemorrhage. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:617–621.
  15. ↑ Leira R, Dávalos A, Silva Y, Gil-Peralta A, Tejada J, Garcia M; et al. (2004). "Early neurologic deterioration in intracerebral hemorrhage: predictors and associated factors". Neurology. 63 (3): 461–7. PMID 15304576.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Sawyer GJ, Fabre JW (1997). "Indirect T-cell allorecognition and the mechanisms of immunosuppression by allogeneic blood transfusions". Transpl Int. 10 (4): 276–83. PMID 9249937.
  17. ↑ Miller CM, Vespa PM, McArthur DL, Hirt D, Etchepare M (2007). "Frameless stereotactic aspiration and thrombolysis of deep intracerebral hemorrhage is associated with reduced levels of extracellular cerebral glutamate and unchanged lactate pyruvate ratios". Neurocrit Care. 6 (1): 22–9. doi:10.1385/NCC:6:1:22. PMID 17356187.
  18. ↑ Cucchiara B, Messe S, Sansing L, Kasner S, Lyden P, CHANT Investigators (2008). "Hematoma growth in oral anticoagulant related intracerebral hemorrhage". Stroke. 39 (11): 2993–6. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.520668. PMID 18703803.
  19. ↑ Broderick JP, Diringer MN, Hill MD, Brun NC, Mayer SA, Steiner T; et al. (2007). "Determinants of intracerebral hemorrhage growth: an exploratory analysis". Stroke. 38 (3): 1072–5. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000258078.35316.30. PMID 17290026.
  20. ↑ Flaherty ML, Tao H, Haverbusch M, Sekar P, Kleindorfer D, Kissela B; et al. (2008). "Warfarin use leads to larger intracerebral hematomas". Neurology. 71 (14): 1084–9. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000326895.58992.27. PMC 2668872. PMID 18824672.
  21. ↑ Bhattathiri PS, Gregson B, Prasad KS, Mendelow AD; STICH Investigators. Intraventricular hemorrhage and hydrocephalus after spon- taneous intracerebral hemorrhage: results from the STICH trial. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2006;96:65–68.
  22. ↑ Hallevi H, Albright KC, Aronowski J, Barreto AD, Martin-Schild S, Khaja AM, Gonzales NR, Illoh K, Noser EA, Grotta JC. Intraventricular hemorrhage: anatomic relationships and clinical implications. Neurology. 2008;70:848–852. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000304930.47751.75.
  23. ↑ Flint AC, Roebken A, Singh V (2008). "Primary intraventricular hemorrhage: yield of diagnostic angiography and clinical outcome". Neurocrit Care. 8 (3): 330–6. doi:10.1007/s12028-008-9070-2. PMID 18320145.
  24. ↑ Engelhard HH, Andrews CO, Slavin KV, Charbel FT (2003). "Current management of intraventricular hemorrhage". Surg Neurol. 60 (1): 15–21, discussion 21-2. PMID 12865003.


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