Salmonellosis laboratory tests: Difference between revisions

Jump to navigation Jump to search
VisualWikitext
No edit summary
m (Changes made per Mahshid's request)
 
(34 intermediate revisions by 6 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
__NOTOC__
{{Salmonellosis}}
{{Salmonellosis}}
{{CMG}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{JS}} {{JM}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
[[Symptoms]] of salmonellosis are indistinguishable from those caused by other [[gastrointestinal]] pathogens, therefore [[Salmonella]] must be identified with further studies.  [[Stool culture]] in appropriate culture media, such as [[blood]] and MacConkey agars, is the most common study to identify the [[Salmonella|bacteria]].  When there is not enough bacteria on the sample, enrichment broths may be used to grown more salmonella.  [[Serologic]] tests with polyvalent and specific [[antisera]] may be used to identify the [[serotype]] of [[Salmonella]].  Blood results from patients with salmonellosis may show unspecific findings, such as: [[leukocytosis]] and elevated [[LFT]]s on the [[CBC]]; [[hypokalemia]] and [[hypernatremia|hyper]] or [[hyponatremia]]; elevated [[inflammatory]] markers; and bacterial growth on [[blood cultures]]. [[Urinalysis]] may show [[hypercalciuria]], [[hypocitraturia]] and increased [[ammonium]] excretion. The [[Salmonella|bacteria]] may also be identified in stool by microscopic examination, and [[lactoferrin]] tests, however, due to the high dependence on the experience of the operator, in microscopic examination, and high cost and rate of [[false-positive]]s, of the [[lactoferrin]] test, these are not commonly used.


==Diagnosis==
==Laboratory Findings==
Many different kinds of illnesses can cause [[diarrhea]], [[fever]], or [[abdominal cramps]]. Determining that Salmonella is the cause of the illness depends on laboratory tests that identify Salmonella in the stools of an infected person. These tests are sometimes not performed unless the laboratory is instructed specifically to look for the organism. Once Salmonella has been identified, further testing can determine its specific type, and which [[antibiotic]]s could be used to treat it.<ref>http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/salmonellosis_g.htm </ref>
The table below displays nonspecific laboratory abnormalities associated with Salmonellosis, including:<ref name=NCBI1>{{cite web | title = Diarrhoea and Vomiting Caused by Gastroenteritis
| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK63841/ }}</ref><ref name="pmid8039632">{{cite journal| author=Agarwal R, Afzalpurkar R, Fordtran JS| title=Pathophysiology of potassium absorption and secretion by the human intestine. | journal=Gastroenterology | year= 1994 | volume= 107 | issue= 2 | pages= 548-71 | pmid=8039632 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8039632  }} </ref><ref name="pmid3785323">{{cite journal| author=Wang F, Butler T, Rabbani GH, Jones PK| title=The acidosis of cholera. Contributions of hyperproteinemia, lactic acidemia, and hyperphosphatemia to an increased serum anion gap. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1986 | volume= 315 | issue= 25 | pages= 1591-5 | pmid=3785323 | doi=10.1056/NEJM198612183152506 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3785323  }} </ref><ref name="pmid4555786">{{cite journal| author=Welbourne T, Weber M, Bank N| title=The effect of glutamine administration on urinary ammonium excretion in normal subjects and patients with renal disease. | journal=J Clin Invest | year= 1972 | volume= 51 | issue= 7 | pages= 1852-60 | pmid=4555786 | doi=10.1172/JCI106987 | pmc=PMC292333 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4555786  }} </ref><ref name="pmid3796685">{{cite journal| author=Batlle DC, von Riotte A, Schlueter W| title=Urinary sodium in the evaluation of hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1987 | volume= 316 | issue= 3 | pages= 140-4 | pmid=3796685 | doi=10.1056/NEJM198701153160305 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3796685  }} </ref>
{| style="border: 2px solid #DCDCDC; font-size: 90%; width: 70%;"
|+ '''Laboratory findings'''
|-
! style="width: 75px; background: #4479BA; text-align: center;"|{{fontcolor|#FFF|Test}}
! style="width: 200px; background: #4479BA; text-align: center;"| {{fontcolor|#FFF|Findings}}
|-
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;"| '''[[Complete Blood Count]]'''
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|
*[[Leukocytosis]] is often present
|-
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;"| '''[[Electrolytes]]'''
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|
*[[Hypokalemia]] may be present
*[[Hypernatremia]] may be present
*[[Hyponatremia]] may be present if patient ingests much free water
|-
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;"| '''Inflammatory Markers'''
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|
*[[CRP]] is often elevated
*[[ESR]] may be elevated
|-
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;"| '''[[Blood cultures]]'''
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|
*Indicated in the presence of prolonged or recurrent fever
*May reveal presence of the [[bacteria]], in case of [[bacteremia]]
*Commonly positive in endovascular infections
|-
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;"| '''[[Urinalysis]]'''
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px;"|
*[[Hypercalciuria]] may be present
*[[Hypocitraturia]] may be present
*Increased [[ammonium]] excretion
|-
|}
 
==Stool Cultures==
[[Stool culture]]s in adequate [[culture media]], allow the correct identification of the [[pathogen]] responsible for [[infectious diarrhea]].  The organism should be isolated from fresh stool. The sample should be planted in different selective and nonselective culture agar media, such as:<ref name=NCBI>{{cite web | title = Salmonella | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8435/ }}</ref>
*[[Blood]]
*MacConkey
*Bismuth sulfite
*Eosin-methylene blue
*Salmonella-Shigella
 
In cases where there is reduced number of pathogens, enrichment broths, such as tetrathionate or selenite, may be used prior to culture of bacteria.<ref name=NCBI>{{cite web | title = Salmonella | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8435/ }}</ref>
 
Fecal [[leukocytes]] may also be identified in the specimen.<ref name="pmid15004086">{{cite journal| author=Granville LA, Cernoch P, Land GA, Davis JR| title=Performance assessment of the fecal leukocyte test for inpatients. | journal=J Clin Microbiol | year= 2004 | volume= 42 | issue= 3 | pages= 1254-6 | pmid=15004086 | doi= | pmc=PMC356889 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15004086  }} </ref>
 
The identification of the organism allows specific treatment of the disease, as well as appropriate follow-up recommendations.<ref name="pmid11170940">{{cite journal| author=Guerrant RL, Van Gilder T, Steiner TS, Thielman NM, Slutsker L, Tauxe RV et al.| title=Practice guidelines for the management of infectious diarrhea. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2001 | volume= 32 | issue= 3 | pages= 331-51 | pmid=11170940 | doi=10.1086/318514 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11170940  }} </ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Longo | first = Dan | title = Harrison's principles of internal medicine | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2012 | isbn = 007174889X }}</ref>
 
This test is not routinely performed due to its elevated cost, when compared with the accuracy of the results. Results from fecal cultures are often delayed and show an elevated rate of false-negatives.<ref name="pmid8815110">{{cite journal| author=Choi SW, Park CH, Silva TM, Zaenker EI, Guerrant RL| title=To culture or not to culture: fecal lactoferrin screening for inflammatory bacterial diarrhea. | journal=J Clin Microbiol | year= 1996 | volume= 34 | issue= 4 | pages= 928-32 | pmid=8815110 | doi= | pmc=PMC228919 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8815110  }} </ref>
 
[[Stool culture]] may remain positive during 4 to 5 weeks, and in rare cases (chronic) for more than 1 year.<ref name="pmid14702426">{{cite journal| author=Thielman NM, Guerrant RL| title=Clinical practice. Acute infectious diarrhea. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2004 | volume= 350 | issue= 1 | pages= 38-47 | pmid=14702426 | doi=10.1056/NEJMcp031534 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14702426  }} </ref>
 
==Serologic Tests==
After identification of Salmonella in [[stool culture]]s, the identification of the [[serologic]] type of the [[pathogen]] is given by serologic testing. Polyvalent and specific [[antisera]] should be used.<ref name=NCBI>{{cite web | title = Salmonella | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8435/ }}</ref>
 
For this classification the following bacterial structures are considered:<ref>{{cite book | last = Murray | first = Patrick | title = Medical microbiology | publisher = Elsevier/Saunders | location = Philadelphia | year = 2013 | isbn = 0323086926 }}</ref>
*Capsular [[antigen]]
*[[Polysaccharide]] O antigens
*Flagellar [[antigens]]
 
==Microscopic Examination==
The examination of stool samples, after staining with methylene blue, helps in the [[diagnosis]] of acute [[diarrhea]]. This test allows the identification of [[leukocytes]] in feces, suggesting an [[inflammatory]] etiology for the [[diarrhea]]. When the results indicate a serious form of the disease, further studies, such as [[stool culture]]s are indicated.<ref name="pmid8815110">{{cite journal| author=Choi SW, Park CH, Silva TM, Zaenker EI, Guerrant RL| title=To culture or not to culture: fecal lactoferrin screening for inflammatory bacterial diarrhea. | journal=J Clin Microbiol | year= 1996 | volume= 34 | issue= 4 | pages= 928-32 | pmid=8815110 | doi= | pmc=PMC228919 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8815110  }} </ref> Limitations of this test include:
*Smear must be obtained from a fresh specimen, preferably collected in a cup (sensitivity 95%) <ref name="pmid507279">{{cite journal| author=Korzeniowski OM, Barada FA, Rouse JD, Guerrant RL| title=Value of examination for fecal leukocytes in the early diagnosis of shigellosis. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 1979 | volume= 28 | issue= 6 | pages= 1031-5 | pmid=507279 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=507279  }} </ref>
*The result is dependent on the experience of the operator
 
===Lactoferrin Testing===
Some studies advocate the importance to test for [[fecal]] [[lactoferrin]]. This test is considered more sensitive than simple [[microscopic]] examination of [[PMN]]. The Lactoferrin Latex Agglutination (LFLA) is an [[in vitro]] test able to detect a highly sensitive [[leukocyte]] marker, indicative of the presence of [[PMN]].<ref name="pmid8815110">{{cite journal| author=Choi SW, Park CH, Silva TM, Zaenker EI, Guerrant RL| title=To culture or not to culture: fecal lactoferrin screening for inflammatory bacterial diarrhea. | journal=J Clin Microbiol | year= 1996 | volume= 34 | issue= 4 | pages= 928-32 | pmid=8815110 | doi= | pmc=PMC228919 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8815110  }} </ref>
 
Its cost and high rate of [[false-positive]]s in breast-fed children, limit its application.<ref name="pmid11170940">{{cite journal| author=Guerrant RL, Van Gilder T, Steiner TS, Thielman NM, Slutsker L, Tauxe RV et al.| title=Practice guidelines for the management of infectious diarrhea. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2001 | volume= 32 | issue= 3 | pages= 331-51 | pmid=11170940 | doi=10.1086/318514 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11170940  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8953074">{{cite journal| author=Hines J, Nachamkin I| title=Effective use of the clinical microbiology laboratory for diagnosing diarrheal diseases. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1996 | volume= 23 | issue= 6 | pages= 1292-301 | pmid=8953074 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8953074  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8815110">{{cite journal| author=Choi SW, Park CH, Silva TM, Zaenker EI, Guerrant RL| title=To culture or not to culture: fecal lactoferrin screening for inflammatory bacterial diarrhea. | journal=J Clin Microbiol | year= 1996 | volume= 34 | issue= 4 | pages= 928-32 | pmid=8815110 | doi= | pmc=PMC228919 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8815110  }} </ref><ref name="pmid7993149">{{cite journal| author=Miller JR, Barrett LJ, Kotloff K, Guerrant RL| title=A rapid test for infectious and inflammatory enteritis. | journal=Arch Intern Med | year= 1994 | volume= 154 | issue= 23 | pages= 2660-4 | pmid=7993149 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7993149  }} </ref>
 
==Gallery==
 
<gallery>
 
Image: Enterobacteria64.jpeg| Salmonella bacteria in tetrathionate enrichment broth stained using direct FA staining technique. <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Enterobacteria63.jpeg| Salmonella bacteria in tetrathionate enrichment broth stained using direct FA staining technique. <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Enterobacteria55.jpeg|Triple sugar iron agar (TSI) tested for Salmonella (H2S+) and (H2S-); Citrobacter sp. and S. arizonae. <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Enterobacteria38.jpeg|Salmonella sp. bacteria. <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Enterobacteria01.jpeg|SEM depicts a number of red-colored Salmonella sp. bacteria invading a mustard-colored ruffled immune cell. <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Enterobacteria37.jpeg| Salmonella typhimurium bacteria isolated from a pure culture (8000x mag). <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
 
Image: Enterobacteria36.jpeg|Salmonella typhimurium bacteria isolated from a pure culture (20000X mag). <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
 
Image: Enterobacteria35.jpeg| Salmonella typhimurium bacteria isolated from a pure culture (25000X mag). <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
</gallery>


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}


[[Category:Bacterial diseases]]
[[Category:Foodborne illnesses]]
[[Category:Zoonoses]]
[[Category:Disease]]
[[Category:Disease]]
[[Category:Infectious disease]]
 
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:Intensive care medicine]]
[[Category:Intensive care medicine]]

Latest revision as of 18:41, 18 September 2017

Salmonellosis Microchapters

Home

Patient Information

Overview

Historical Perspective

Pathophysiology

Causes

Differentiating Salmonellosis from other Diseases

Epidemiology and Demographics

Risk Factors

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Diagnosis

History and Symptoms

Physical Examination

Laboratory Findings

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Primary Prevention

Cost-Effectiveness of Therapy

Future or Investigational Therapies

Case Studies

Case #1

Salmonellosis laboratory tests On the Web

Most recent articles

Most cited articles

Review articles

CME Programs

Powerpoint slides

Images

American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Salmonellosis laboratory tests

All Images
X-rays
Echo & Ultrasound
CT Images
MRI

Ongoing Trials at Clinical Trials.gov

US National Guidelines Clearinghouse

NICE Guidance

FDA on Salmonellosis laboratory tests

CDC on Salmonellosis laboratory tests

Salmonellosis laboratory tests in the news

Blogs on Salmonellosis laboratory tests

Directions to Hospitals Treating Salmonellosis

Risk calculators and risk factors for Salmonellosis laboratory tests

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: João André Alves Silva, M.D. [2] Jolanta Marszalek, M.D. [3]

Overview

Symptoms of salmonellosis are indistinguishable from those caused by other gastrointestinal pathogens, therefore Salmonella must be identified with further studies. Stool culture in appropriate culture media, such as blood and MacConkey agars, is the most common study to identify the bacteria. When there is not enough bacteria on the sample, enrichment broths may be used to grown more salmonella. Serologic tests with polyvalent and specific antisera may be used to identify the serotype of Salmonella. Blood results from patients with salmonellosis may show unspecific findings, such as: leukocytosis and elevated LFTs on the CBC; hypokalemia and hyper or hyponatremia; elevated inflammatory markers; and bacterial growth on blood cultures. Urinalysis may show hypercalciuria, hypocitraturia and increased ammonium excretion. The bacteria may also be identified in stool by microscopic examination, and lactoferrin tests, however, due to the high dependence on the experience of the operator, in microscopic examination, and high cost and rate of false-positives, of the lactoferrin test, these are not commonly used.

Laboratory Findings

The table below displays nonspecific laboratory abnormalities associated with Salmonellosis, including:[1][2][3][4][5]

Laboratory findings
Test Findings
Complete Blood Count
Electrolytes
Inflammatory Markers
  • CRP is often elevated
  • ESR may be elevated
Blood cultures
  • Indicated in the presence of prolonged or recurrent fever
  • May reveal presence of the bacteria, in case of bacteremia
  • Commonly positive in endovascular infections
Urinalysis

Stool Cultures

Stool cultures in adequate culture media, allow the correct identification of the pathogen responsible for infectious diarrhea. The organism should be isolated from fresh stool. The sample should be planted in different selective and nonselective culture agar media, such as:[6]

  • Blood
  • MacConkey
  • Bismuth sulfite
  • Eosin-methylene blue
  • Salmonella-Shigella

In cases where there is reduced number of pathogens, enrichment broths, such as tetrathionate or selenite, may be used prior to culture of bacteria.[6]

Fecal leukocytes may also be identified in the specimen.[7]

The identification of the organism allows specific treatment of the disease, as well as appropriate follow-up recommendations.[8][9]

This test is not routinely performed due to its elevated cost, when compared with the accuracy of the results. Results from fecal cultures are often delayed and show an elevated rate of false-negatives.[10]

Stool culture may remain positive during 4 to 5 weeks, and in rare cases (chronic) for more than 1 year.[11]

Serologic Tests

After identification of Salmonella in stool cultures, the identification of the serologic type of the pathogen is given by serologic testing. Polyvalent and specific antisera should be used.[6]

For this classification the following bacterial structures are considered:[12]

Microscopic Examination

The examination of stool samples, after staining with methylene blue, helps in the diagnosis of acute diarrhea. This test allows the identification of leukocytes in feces, suggesting an inflammatory etiology for the diarrhea. When the results indicate a serious form of the disease, further studies, such as stool cultures are indicated.[10] Limitations of this test include:

  • Smear must be obtained from a fresh specimen, preferably collected in a cup (sensitivity 95%) [13]
  • The result is dependent on the experience of the operator

Lactoferrin Testing

Some studies advocate the importance to test for fecal lactoferrin. This test is considered more sensitive than simple microscopic examination of PMN. The Lactoferrin Latex Agglutination (LFLA) is an in vitro test able to detect a highly sensitive leukocyte marker, indicative of the presence of PMN.[10]

Its cost and high rate of false-positives in breast-fed children, limit its application.[8][14][10][15]

Gallery

References

  1. ↑ "Diarrhoea and Vomiting Caused by Gastroenteritis".
  2. ↑ Agarwal R, Afzalpurkar R, Fordtran JS (1994). "Pathophysiology of potassium absorption and secretion by the human intestine". Gastroenterology. 107 (2): 548–71. PMID 8039632.
  3. ↑ Wang F, Butler T, Rabbani GH, Jones PK (1986). "The acidosis of cholera. Contributions of hyperproteinemia, lactic acidemia, and hyperphosphatemia to an increased serum anion gap". N Engl J Med. 315 (25): 1591–5. doi:10.1056/NEJM198612183152506. PMID 3785323.
  4. ↑ Welbourne T, Weber M, Bank N (1972). "The effect of glutamine administration on urinary ammonium excretion in normal subjects and patients with renal disease". J Clin Invest. 51 (7): 1852–60. doi:10.1172/JCI106987. PMC 292333. PMID 4555786.
  5. ↑ Batlle DC, von Riotte A, Schlueter W (1987). "Urinary sodium in the evaluation of hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis". N Engl J Med. 316 (3): 140–4. doi:10.1056/NEJM198701153160305. PMID 3796685.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 "Salmonella".
  7. ↑ Granville LA, Cernoch P, Land GA, Davis JR (2004). "Performance assessment of the fecal leukocyte test for inpatients". J Clin Microbiol. 42 (3): 1254–6. PMC 356889. PMID 15004086.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Guerrant RL, Van Gilder T, Steiner TS, Thielman NM, Slutsker L, Tauxe RV; et al. (2001). "Practice guidelines for the management of infectious diarrhea". Clin Infect Dis. 32 (3): 331–51. doi:10.1086/318514. PMID 11170940.
  9. ↑ Longo, Dan (2012). Harrison's principles of internal medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 007174889X.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Choi SW, Park CH, Silva TM, Zaenker EI, Guerrant RL (1996). "To culture or not to culture: fecal lactoferrin screening for inflammatory bacterial diarrhea". J Clin Microbiol. 34 (4): 928–32. PMC 228919. PMID 8815110.
  11. ↑ Thielman NM, Guerrant RL (2004). "Clinical practice. Acute infectious diarrhea". N Engl J Med. 350 (1): 38–47. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp031534. PMID 14702426.
  12. ↑ Murray, Patrick (2013). Medical microbiology. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 0323086926.
  13. ↑ Korzeniowski OM, Barada FA, Rouse JD, Guerrant RL (1979). "Value of examination for fecal leukocytes in the early diagnosis of shigellosis". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 28 (6): 1031–5. PMID 507279.
  14. ↑ Hines J, Nachamkin I (1996). "Effective use of the clinical microbiology laboratory for diagnosing diarrheal diseases". Clin Infect Dis. 23 (6): 1292–301. PMID 8953074.
  15. ↑ Miller JR, Barrett LJ, Kotloff K, Guerrant RL (1994). "A rapid test for infectious and inflammatory enteritis". Arch Intern Med. 154 (23): 2660–4. PMID 7993149.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 "Public Health Image Library (PHIL)".


Template:WikiDoc Sources

Retrieved from "https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php?title=Salmonellosis_laboratory_tests&oldid=1359257"