Diabetes insipidus causes: Difference between revisions

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__NOTOC__
__NOTOC__
{{Diabetes insipidus}}
{{Diabetes insipidus}}
{{CMG}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{DAMI}}


== Overview ==
== Overview ==
Diabetes insipidus is caused by a variety of factors. The causes for each sub type of diabetes insipidus is classically different. It is important to identify these underlying causes of the various forms in order to appropriately diagnose and treat each type.  
Diabetes insipidus is caused by a variety of factors. The causes for each subtype of diabetes insipidus are classically different. It is important to identify these underlying causes of the various forms in order to appropriately diagnose and treat each type.


== Causes ==
== Causes ==


===Central DI===
===Central DI===
CDI is caused by the destruction or [[degeneration]] of [[neurons]] originating in the [[Supraoptic nucleus|supraoptic]] and [[Paraventricular nucleus|paraventricular nuclei]]. [[Central diabetes insipidus|Central DI]], results from damage to the [[pituitary gland]], which disrupts the normal storage and release of [[ADH]]. The most common cause of [[central diabetes insipidus]] ([[CDI]]), accounting for the vast majority of cases, are [[idiopathic]] [[diabetes insipidus]] (DI)<ref name="pmid6640507">{{cite journal| author=Kimmel DW, O'Neill BP| title=Systemic cancer presenting as diabetes insipidus. Clinical and radiographic features of 11 patients with a review of metastatic-induced diabetes insipidus. | journal=Cancer | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 12 | pages= 2355-8 | pmid=6640507 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6640507  }} </ref><ref name="pmid11018166">{{cite journal| author=Maghnie M, Cosi G, Genovese E, Manca-Bitti ML, Cohen A, Zecca S et al.| title=Central diabetes insipidus in children and young adults. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2000 | volume= 343 | issue= 14 | pages= 998-1007 | pmid=11018166 | doi=10.1056/NEJM200010053431403 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11018166  }} </ref>. Others include<ref name="pmid11018166">{{cite journal| author=Maghnie M, Cosi G, Genovese E, Manca-Bitti ML, Cohen A, Zecca S et al.| title=Central diabetes insipidus in children and young adults. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2000 | volume= 343 | issue= 14 | pages= 998-1007 | pmid=11018166 | doi=10.1056/NEJM200010053431403 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11018166  }} </ref>;
*CDI is caused by the destruction or [[degeneration]] of [[neurons]] originating in the [[Supraoptic nucleus|supraoptic]] and [[Paraventricular nucleus|paraventricular nuclei]]. [[Central diabetes insipidus|Central DI]] results from damage to the [[pituitary gland]], which disrupts the normal storage and release of [[ADH]]. The most common cause of [[central diabetes insipidus]] ([[CDI]]) is [[idiopathic]] [[diabetes insipidus]] (DI), which accounts for the vast majority of cases.<ref name="pmid6640507">{{cite journal| author=Kimmel DW, O'Neill BP| title=Systemic cancer presenting as diabetes insipidus. Clinical and radiographic features of 11 patients with a review of metastatic-induced diabetes insipidus. | journal=Cancer | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 12 | pages= 2355-8 | pmid=6640507 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6640507  }} </ref><ref name="pmid11018166">{{cite journal| author=Maghnie M, Cosi G, Genovese E, Manca-Bitti ML, Cohen A, Zecca S et al.| title=Central diabetes insipidus in children and young adults. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2000 | volume= 343 | issue= 14 | pages= 998-1007 | pmid=11018166 | doi=10.1056/NEJM200010053431403 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11018166  }} </ref>  
*[[Familial]] and [[Congenital disorder|congenital]] disease
 
**[[Familial]] CDI<ref name="pmid11427695">{{cite journal| author=Burbach JP, Luckman SM, Murphy D, Gainer H| title=Gene regulation in the magnocellular hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system. | journal=Physiol Rev | year= 2001 | volume= 81 | issue= 3 | pages= 1197-267 | pmid=11427695 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11427695  }} </ref>
*Others causes include:<ref name="pmid11018166">{{cite journal| author=Maghnie M, Cosi G, Genovese E, Manca-Bitti ML, Cohen A, Zecca S et al.| title=Central diabetes insipidus in children and young adults. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2000 | volume= 343 | issue= 14 | pages= 998-1007 | pmid=11018166 | doi=10.1056/NEJM200010053431403 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11018166  }} </ref>
**[[Wolfram syndrome]] also known as DIDMOAD ([[diabetes insipidus]], [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes mellitus,]] [[Optic atrophy|optic atrophy,]] and [[deafness]])<ref name="pmid26025012">{{cite journal| author=Bischoff AN, Reiersen AM, Buttlaire A, Al-Lozi A, Doty T, Marshall BA et al.| title=Selective cognitive and psychiatric manifestations in Wolfram Syndrome. | journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 10 | issue=  | pages= 66 | pmid=26025012 | doi=10.1186/s13023-015-0282-1 | pmc=4450481 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26025012  }} </ref>
:*[[Familial]] and [[Congenital disorder|congenital]] diseases
**Congenital [[hypopituitarism]]<ref name="pmid8157716">{{cite journal| author=Yagi H, Nagashima K, Miyake H, Tamai S, Onigata K, Yutani S et al.| title=Familial congenital hypopituitarism with central diabetes insipidus. | journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab | year= 1994 | volume= 78 | issue= 4 | pages= 884-9 | pmid=8157716 | doi=10.1210/jcem.78.4.8157716 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8157716  }} </ref>
:**[[Familial]] CDI<ref name="pmid11427695">{{cite journal| author=Burbach JP, Luckman SM, Murphy D, Gainer H| title=Gene regulation in the magnocellular hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system. | journal=Physiol Rev | year= 2001 | volume= 81 | issue= 3 | pages= 1197-267 | pmid=11427695 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?:dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11427695  }} </ref>
**[[Septo-optic dysplasia]]<ref name="pmid4191531">{{cite journal| author=Hoyt WF, Kaplan SL, Grumbach MM, Glaser JS| title=Septo-optic dysplasia and pituitary dwarfism. | journal=Lancet | year= 1970 | volume= 1 | issue= 7652 | pages= 893-4 | pmid=4191531 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4191531  }} </ref>
:**[[Wolfram syndrome]], also known as DIDMOAD ([[diabetes insipidus]], [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes mellitus,]] [[Optic atrophy|optic atrophy,]] and [[deafness]])<ref name="pmid26025012">{{cite journal| author=Bischoff AN, Reiersen AM, Buttlaire A, Al-Lozi A, Doty T, Marshall BA et al.| title=Selective cognitive and psychiatric manifestations in Wolfram Syndrome. | journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 10 | issue=  | pages= 66 | pmid=26025012 | doi=10.1186/s13023-015-0282-1 | pmc=4450481 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26025012  }} </ref>
*[[Neurosurgery]] or [[trauma]]<ref name="pmid2492841">{{cite journal| author=Seckl J, Dunger D| title=Postoperative diabetes insipidus. | journal=BMJ | year= 1989 | volume= 298 | issue= 6665 | pages= 2-3 | pmid=2492841 | doi= | pmc=1835326 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2492841  }} </ref><ref name="pmid16235676">{{cite journal| author=Nemergut EC, Zuo Z, Jane JA, Laws ER| title=Predictors of diabetes insipidus after transsphenoidal surgery: a review of 881 patients. | journal=J Neurosurg | year= 2005 | volume= 103 | issue= 3 | pages= 448-54 | pmid=16235676 | doi=10.3171/jns.2005.103.3.0448 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16235676  }} </ref>
:**Congenital [[hypopituitarism]]<ref name="pmid8157716">{{cite journal| author=Yagi H, Nagashima K, Miyake H, Tamai S, Onigata K, Yutani S et al.| title=Familial congenital hypopituitarism with central diabetes insipidus. | journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab | year= 1994 | volume= 78 | issue= 4 | pages= 884-9 | pmid=8157716 | doi=10.1210/jcem.78.4.8157716 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8157716  }} </ref>
*[[Cancer]]<ref name="pmid6640507">{{cite journal| author=Kimmel DW, O'Neill BP| title=Systemic cancer presenting as diabetes insipidus. Clinical and radiographic features of 11 patients with a review of metastatic-induced diabetes insipidus. | journal=Cancer | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 12 | pages= 2355-8 | pmid=6640507 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6640507  }} </ref>
:**[[Septo-optic dysplasia]]<ref name="pmid4191531">{{cite journal| author=Hoyt WF, Kaplan SL, Grumbach MM, Glaser JS| title=Septo-optic dysplasia and pituitary dwarfism. | journal=Lancet | year= 1970 | volume= 1 | issue= 7652 | pages= 893-4 | pmid=4191531 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4191531  }} </ref>
*[[Hypoxic encephalopathy]]
:*[[Neurosurgery]] or [[trauma]]<ref name="pmid2492841">{{cite journal| author=Seckl J, Dunger D| title=Postoperative diabetes insipidus. | journal=BMJ | year= 1989 | volume= 298 | issue= 6665 | pages= 2-3 | pmid=2492841 | doi= | pmc=1835326 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2492841  }} </ref><ref name="pmid16235676">{{cite journal| author=Nemergut EC, Zuo Z, Jane JA, Laws ER| title=Predictors of diabetes insipidus after transsphenoidal surgery: a review of 881 patients. | journal=J Neurosurg | year= 2005 | volume= 103 | issue= 3 | pages= 448-54 | pmid=16235676 | doi=10.3171/jns.2005.103.3.0448 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16235676  }} </ref>
*Infiltrative disorders<ref name="pmid20434166">{{cite journal| author=Grois N, Fahrner B, Arceci RJ, Henter JI, McClain K, Lassmann H et al.| title=Central nervous system disease in Langerhans cell histiocytosis. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 2010 | volume= 156 | issue= 6 | pages= 873-81, 881.e1 | pmid=20434166 | doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.03.001 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20434166  }} </ref><ref name="pmid2797079">{{cite journal| author=Dunger DB, Broadbent V, Yeoman E, Seckl JR, Lightman SL, Grant DB et al.| title=The frequency and natural history of diabetes insipidus in children with Langerhans-cell histiocytosis. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1989 | volume= 321 | issue= 17 | pages= 1157-62 | pmid=2797079 | doi=10.1056/NEJM198910263211704 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2797079  }} </ref>
:*[[Cancer]]<ref name="pmid6640507">{{cite journal| author=Kimmel DW, O'Neill BP| title=Systemic cancer presenting as diabetes insipidus. Clinical and radiographic features of 11 patients with a review of metastatic-induced diabetes insipidus. | journal=Cancer | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 12 | pages= 2355-8 | pmid=6640507 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6640507  }} </ref>
**[[Langerhans cell histiocytosis|Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH)]]
:*[[Hypoxic encephalopathy]]
**[[eosinophilic granuloma]]
:*Infiltrative disorders<ref name="pmid20434166">{{cite journal| author=Grois N, Fahrner B, Arceci RJ, Henter JI, McClain K, Lassmann H et al.| title=Central nervous system disease in Langerhans cell histiocytosis. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 2010 | volume= 156 | issue= 6 | pages= 873-81, 881.e1 | pmid=20434166 | doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.03.001 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20434166  }} </ref><ref name="pmid2797079">{{cite journal| author=Dunger DB, Broadbent V, Yeoman E, Seckl JR, Lightman SL, Grant DB et al.| title=The frequency and natural history of diabetes insipidus in children with Langerhans-cell histiocytosis. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1989 | volume= 321 | issue= 17 | pages= 1157-62 | pmid=2797079 | doi=10.1056/NEJM198910263211704 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2797079  }} </ref>
*Post-supraventricular tachycardia<ref name="pmid6434116">{{cite journal| author=Canepa-Anson R, Williams M, Marshall J, Mitsuoka T, Lightman S, Sutton R| title=Mechanism of polyuria and natriuresis in atrioventricular nodal tachycardia. | journal=Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) | year= 1984 | volume= 289 | issue= 6449 | pages= 866-8 | pmid=6434116 | doi= | pmc=1443391 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6434116  }} </ref>
:**[[Langerhans cell histiocytosis|Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH)]]
*[[Anorexia nervosa]]<ref name="pmid6835335">{{cite journal| author=Gold PW, Kaye W, Robertson GL, Ebert M| title=Abnormalities in plasma and cerebrospinal-fluid arginine vasopressin in patients with anorexia nervosa. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 308 | issue= 19 | pages= 1117-23 | pmid=6835335 | doi=10.1056/NEJM198305123081902 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6835335  }} </ref>
:**[[Eosinophilic granuloma]]
:*Post-[[supraventricular tachycardia]]<ref name="pmid6434116">{{cite journal| author=Canepa-Anson R, Williams M, Marshall J, Mitsuoka T, Lightman S, Sutton R| title=Mechanism of polyuria and natriuresis in atrioventricular nodal tachycardia. | journal=Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) | year= 1984 | volume= 289 | issue= 6449 | pages= 866-8 | pmid=6434116 | doi= | pmc=1443391 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6434116  }} </ref>
:*[[Anorexia nervosa]]<ref name="pmid6835335">{{cite journal| author=Gold PW, Kaye W, Robertson GL, Ebert M| title=Abnormalities in plasma and cerebrospinal-fluid arginine vasopressin in patients with anorexia nervosa. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 308 | issue= 19 | pages= 1117-23 | pmid=6835335 | doi=10.1056/NEJM198305123081902 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6835335  }} </ref>


===Nephrogenic DI===
===Nephrogenic DI===
The most common causes of [[ADH]] resistance severe enough to produce [[polyuria]] are hereditary [[Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus|nephrogenic DI]] in children, and chronic [[lithium]] ingestion and [[hypercalcemia]] in adults. Acquired causes are often partially reversible with cessation of the offending drug or correction of [[hypercalcemia]]. Other causes include;
The most common causes of [[ADH]] resistance severe enough to produce [[polyuria]] are hereditary [[Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus|nephrogenic DI]] (in children) and chronic [[lithium]] ingestion and [[hypercalcemia]] (in adults). Acquired causes are often partially reversible with cessation of the offending drug or correction of [[hypercalcemia]]. Other causes include:
*Hereditary [[Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus|nephrogenic diabetes Insipidus]]<ref name="pmid10477148">{{cite journal| author=van Lieburg AF, Knoers NV, Monnens LA| title=Clinical presentation and follow-up of 30 patients with congenital nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. | journal=J Am Soc Nephrol | year= 1999 | volume= 10 | issue= 9 | pages= 1958-64 | pmid=10477148 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10477148  }} </ref>
*Hereditary [[Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus|nephrogenic diabetes Insipidus]]<ref name="pmid10477148">{{cite journal| author=van Lieburg AF, Knoers NV, Monnens LA| title=Clinical presentation and follow-up of 30 patients with congenital nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. | journal=J Am Soc Nephrol | year= 1999 | volume= 10 | issue= 9 | pages= 1958-64 | pmid=10477148 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10477148  }} </ref>
**[[Vasopressin]] V2 receptor gene mutations<ref name="pmid15004257">{{cite journal| author=Sasaki S| title=Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus: update of genetic and clinical aspects. | journal=Nephrol Dial Transplant | year= 2004 | volume= 19 | issue= 6 | pages= 1351-3 | pmid=15004257 | doi=10.1093/ndt/gfh172 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15004257  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9329382">{{cite journal| author=Nomura Y, Onigata K, Nagashima T, Yutani S, Mochizuki H, Nagashima K et al.| title=Detection of skewed X-inactivation in two female carriers of vasopressin type 2 receptor gene mutation. | journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab | year= 1997 | volume= 82 | issue= 10 | pages= 3434-7 | pmid=9329382 | doi=10.1210/jcem.82.10.4312 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9329382  }} </ref>
**[[Vasopressin]] V2 receptor [[gene mutation]]<ref name="pmid15004257">{{cite journal| author=Sasaki S| title=Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus: update of genetic and clinical aspects. | journal=Nephrol Dial Transplant | year= 2004 | volume= 19 | issue= 6 | pages= 1351-3 | pmid=15004257 | doi=10.1093/ndt/gfh172 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15004257  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9329382">{{cite journal| author=Nomura Y, Onigata K, Nagashima T, Yutani S, Mochizuki H, Nagashima K et al.| title=Detection of skewed X-inactivation in two female carriers of vasopressin type 2 receptor gene mutation. | journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab | year= 1997 | volume= 82 | issue= 10 | pages= 3434-7 | pmid=9329382 | doi=10.1210/jcem.82.10.4312 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9329382  }} </ref>
**[[Aquaporin-2]] gene mutation<ref name="pmid15153548">{{cite journal| author=Devonald MA, Karet FE| title=Renal epithelial traffic jams and one-way streets. | journal=J Am Soc Nephrol | year= 2004 | volume= 15 | issue= 6 | pages= 1370-81 | pmid=15153548 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15153548  }} </ref>
**[[Aquaporin-2]] [[gene mutation]]<ref name="pmid15153548">{{cite journal| author=Devonald MA, Karet FE| title=Renal epithelial traffic jams and one-way streets. | journal=J Am Soc Nephrol | year= 2004 | volume= 15 | issue= 6 | pages= 1370-81 | pmid=15153548 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15153548  }} </ref>
*[[Lithium]] toxicity<ref name="pmid19384328">{{cite journal| author=Grünfeld JP, Rossier BC| title=Lithium nephrotoxicity revisited. | journal=Nat Rev Nephrol | year= 2009 | volume= 5 | issue= 5 | pages= 270-6 | pmid=19384328 | doi=10.1038/nrneph.2009.43 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19384328  }} </ref>
*[[Lithium]] toxicity<ref name="pmid19384328">{{cite journal| author=Grünfeld JP, Rossier BC| title=Lithium nephrotoxicity revisited. | journal=Nat Rev Nephrol | year= 2009 | volume= 5 | issue= 5 | pages= 270-6 | pmid=19384328 | doi=10.1038/nrneph.2009.43 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19384328  }} </ref>
*[[Hypercalcemia]]<ref name="pmid3037155">{{cite journal| author=Berl T| title=The cAMP system in vasopressin-sensitive nephron segments of the vitamin D-treated rat. | journal=Kidney Int | year= 1987 | volume= 31 | issue= 5 | pages= 1065-71 | pmid=3037155 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3037155  }} </ref>
*[[Hypercalcemia]]<ref name="pmid3037155">{{cite journal| author=Berl T| title=The cAMP system in vasopressin-sensitive nephron segments of the vitamin D-treated rat. | journal=Kidney Int | year= 1987 | volume= 31 | issue= 5 | pages= 1065-71 | pmid=3037155 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3037155  }} </ref>
*[[Hypokalemia]]<ref name="pmid26674602">{{cite journal| author=Khositseth S, Uawithya P, Somparn P, Charngkaew K, Thippamom N, Hoffert JD et al.| title=Autophagic degradation of aquaporin-2 is an early event in hypokalemia-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. | journal=Sci Rep | year= 2015 | volume= 5 | issue=  | pages= 18311 | pmid=26674602 | doi=10.1038/srep18311 | pmc=4682130 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26674602  }} </ref>, Persistent severe [[hypokalemia]] (plasma potassium concentration usually below 3 meq/L) can impair urinary concentrating ability
*[[Hypokalemia]]<ref name="pmid26674602">{{cite journal| author=Khositseth S, Uawithya P, Somparn P, Charngkaew K, Thippamom N, Hoffert JD et al.| title=Autophagic degradation of aquaporin-2 is an early event in hypokalemia-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. | journal=Sci Rep | year= 2015 | volume= 5 | issue=  | pages= 18311 | pmid=26674602 | doi=10.1038/srep18311 | pmc=4682130 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26674602  }} </ref>
**Persistent severe [[hypokalemia]] ([[Potassium|plasma potassium]] concentration usually below 3 meq/L) can impair urinary concentrating ability
*Other — [[Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus|Nephrogenic DI]] has been described in a number of other clinical settings
*Other — [[Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus|Nephrogenic DI]] has been described in a number of other clinical settings
**Renal disease  
**[[Renal disease]]
***[[Sickle-cell disease|Sickle cell disease]] or trait
***[[Sickle-cell disease|Sickle cell disease]] or trait
***[[Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease]]
***[[Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease]]
Line 48: Line 51:
***[[Orlistat]]
***[[Orlistat]]
***[[Didanosine]]
***[[Didanosine]]
**Pregnancy<ref name="pmid15863571">{{cite journal| author=Brewster UC, Hayslett JP| title=Diabetes insipidus in the third trimester of pregnancy. | journal=Obstet Gynecol | year= 2005 | volume= 105 | issue= 5 Pt 2 | pages= 1173-6 | pmid=15863571 | doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000161811.02155.68 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15863571  }} </ref>
**[[Pregnancy]]<ref name="pmid15863571">{{cite journal| author=Brewster UC, Hayslett JP| title=Diabetes insipidus in the third trimester of pregnancy. | journal=Obstet Gynecol | year= 2005 | volume= 105 | issue= 5 Pt 2 | pages= 1173-6 | pmid=15863571 | doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000161811.02155.68 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15863571  }} </ref>
**[[Bardet-Biedl syndrome]]<ref name="pmid8270381">{{cite journal| author=Anadoliiska A, Roussinov D| title=Clinical aspects of renal involvement in Bardet-Biedl syndrome. | journal=Int Urol Nephrol | year= 1993 | volume= 25 | issue= 5 | pages= 509-14 | pmid=8270381 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8270381  }} </ref>
**[[Bardet-Biedl syndrome]]<ref name="pmid8270381">{{cite journal| author=Anadoliiska A, Roussinov D| title=Clinical aspects of renal involvement in Bardet-Biedl syndrome. | journal=Int Urol Nephrol | year= 1993 | volume= 25 | issue= 5 | pages= 509-14 | pmid=8270381 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8270381  }} </ref>
**[[Bartter syndrome]]<ref name="pmid11893344">{{cite journal| author=Peters M, Jeck N, Reinalter S, Leonhardt A, Tönshoff B, Klaus G Gü et al.| title=Clinical presentation of genetically defined patients with hypokalemic salt-losing tubulopathies. | journal=Am J Med | year= 2002 | volume= 112 | issue= 3 | pages= 183-90 | pmid=11893344 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11893344  }} </ref>
**[[Bartter syndrome]]<ref name="pmid11893344">{{cite journal| author=Peters M, Jeck N, Reinalter S, Leonhardt A, Tönshoff B, Klaus G Gü et al.| title=Clinical presentation of genetically defined patients with hypokalemic salt-losing tubulopathies. | journal=Am J Med | year= 2002 | volume= 112 | issue= 3 | pages= 183-90 | pmid=11893344 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11893344  }} </ref>


===Psychogenic DI===
===Psychogenic DI===
Psychogenic DI also known as dipsogenic DI or primary [[polydipsia]] or factitious diabetes insipidus is characterized by a primary increase in water intake. Some of the major causes are:
Psychogenic DI (also known as dipsogenic DI, primary [[polydipsia]], or factitious diabetes insipidus) is characterized by a primary increase in water intake. Some of the major causes include:
*Psychiatric illnesses
*Psychiatric illnesses
*Use of [[phenothiazine]] which can lead to the sensation of a dry mouth.
*Use of [[phenothiazine]], which can lead to the sensation of a dry mouth
*[[Hypothalamic]] lesions that directly affect the thirst center
*[[Hypothalamic]] lesions that directly affect the thirst center
*Infiltrative disease such as [[sarcoidosis]]
*Infiltrative disease such as [[sarcoidosis]]


===Gestational DI===
===Gestational DI===
Gestational diabetes insipidus is a very rare [[Complication (medicine)|complication]] of [[pregnancy]]. However, undiagnosed and untreated may lead to serious complications in both mother and [[fetus]]. The only cause that has been associated with this disorder is pregnancy. However, it is usually cause mild [[polyuria]], which can be treated with [[desmopressin]] but if left untreated, it can progress to more severe [[Complication (medicine)|complications]].
Gestational diabetes insipidus is a very rare [[Complication (medicine)|complication]] of [[pregnancy]]. However, undiagnosed and untreated cases may lead to serious complications in both mother and [[fetus]]. The only cause that has been associated with this disorder is [[pregnancy]]. It usually causes mild [[polyuria]], which can be treated with [[desmopressin]]; if left untreated, it can progress to more severe [[Complication (medicine)|complications]].
 
===Causes by Organ System===
 
{| style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
| style="width:25%" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" ; border="1" | '''Cardiovascular'''
| style="width:75%" bgcolor="Beige" ; border="1" | [[Hypovolemic shock]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Chemical / poisoning'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Amphotericin B]], [[Demeclocycline]], [[Lithium]] , Radiation - for CNS and nasopharyngeal malignancies , Pituitary radiation , [[Netilmicin]] , [[Kanamycin]], [[Carbamazepine]] , [[Amikacin]]
 
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | Ischemia of the pitutary gland , [[Sheehan syndrome]] , [[Pituitary tumour]] , [[Panhypopituitarism]] , lymphocytic hypophysitis , Familial [[hypopituitarism]] , congenital nephrogenic , Congenital [[hypopituitarism]] , Apoplexy ,  pituitary cysts
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |Inherited genetic kidney disorders , Genetic diseases - pit-1 mutation
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Sickle cell disease]] , [[Langerhans cell histiocytosis]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Neurosurgery]] , Pituitary surgery 
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Tuberculous meningitis]] , [[Meningoencephalitis]] , [[Infections]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | Dipsogenic diabetes insipidus , Ischemic encephalopathy , [[Subarachnoid hemorrhage]] , Mass lesions hypothalamus , [[Ischemic stroke]] , [[Intracranial space-occupying lesion]] , [[Intracranial bleeding]] , [[Hypoxic encephalopathy]] , Hypothalamic radiation , [[Brain aneurysm]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Hypercalcemia]] , [[hemochromatosis]] , [[Anorexia nervosa]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Gestational diabetes insipidus]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Pituitary Cancer ]] , [[pituitary adenomas]] , malignant tumors  infilterating hypothalamus from lung and breast , [[Histiocytosis]] , [[Craniopharyngioma]]
 
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Opthalmologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose / Toxicity'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Polycystic kidney disease]], [[Renal failure]] , [[Interstitial nephritis]] , [[Hypokalaemia]] , [[Hypercalcaemia]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Sarcoidosis]] , Autoimmune Hypophysitis , Autoimmune Diabetes Insipidus
 
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Head injury]] , Trauma - fracture of skull base
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Partial blockage of the ureters]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dental'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Dehydration]] , [[Wolfram syndrome]] , [[Sicca syndrome]] , [[Septo-optic dysplasia]] , Infiltrative lesions , [[Idiopathic]] , [[Hand-Schuller-Christian Syndrome ]] , Familial CDI , [[Erdheim-Chester disease]] , DIDMOAD syndrome , Anophthalmia -- hypyothalamo-pituitary insufficiency  , Anophthalmia -- hypothalamo-pituitary insufficiency  , [[Amyloidosis]]
 
|-
|}
 
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
 
{{Multicol}}
*[[Amikacin]]
*[[Amphotericin B]]
*[[Amyloidosis]]
*Anophthalmia -- hypothalamo-pituitary insufficiency
*Anophthalmia -- hypyothalamo-pituitary insufficiency
*[[Anorexia nervosa]]
*[[Apoplexy]]
*Autoimmune [[Diabetes Insipidus]]
*Autoimmune Hypophysitis
*[[Brain aneurysm]]
*[[Carbamazepine ]]
*Congenital hypopituitarism
*[[Craniopharyngioma]]
*Diabetes insipidus, congenital nephrogenic
*DIDMOAD syndrome
*[[Erdheim-Chester disease]]
*Familial CDI
*Familial hypopituitarism
*Genetic diseases - pit-1 mutation
*[[Hand-Schuller-Christian Syndrome ]]
*[[Head injury]]
{{ColBreak}}
*[[Hemochromatosis]]
*[[Histiocytosis]]
*[[Hypercalcaemia]]
*[[Hypokalaemia]]
*Hypothalamic radiation
*[[Hypoxic encephalopathy]]
*[[Idiopathic]]
*[[Infections]]
*Infiltrative lesions Pituitary, [[hypothalamu]]
*Inherited genetic kidney disorders
*[[Interstitial nephritis]]
*[[Intracranial bleeding]]
*[[Intracranial space-occupying lesion]]
*[[Ischemic stroke]]
*[[Kanamycin]]
*[[Langerhans cell histiocytosis]]
*[[Lithium]]
*Lymphocytic hypophysitis
*Malignant tumors  infilterating hypothalamus from lung, breast
*Mass lesions hypothalamus
*[[Meningoencephalitis]]
{{ColBreak}}
*[[Netilmicin]]
*[[Neurosurgery]]
*[[Panhypopituitarism]]
*[[pituitary adenomas]]
*[[Pituitary Cancer ]]
*Pituitary radiation
*Pituitary surgery
*Pituitary cysts
*[[Pituitary tumour]]
*Post-supraventricular tachycardia
*Radiation - for CNS and nasopharyngeal malignancies
*[[Sarcoidosis]]
*[[Septo-optic dysplasia]]
*[[Sheehan syndrome]]
*[[Sheehan syndrome]]
*[[Sicca syndrome]]
*[[Sickle cell disease]]
*[[Subarachnoid hemorrhage]]
*Trauma - fracture of skull base
*[[Tuberculous meningitis]]
*[[Wolfram syndrome]]
{{EndMultiCol}}


==References==
==References==
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[[Category:Endocrinology]]
[[Category:Endocrinology]]
[[Category:Nephrology]]
[[Category:Nephrology]]
[[Category:Needs content]]
[[Category:Needs overview]]

Latest revision as of 19:51, 26 October 2017

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Omodamola Aje B.Sc, M.D. [2]

Overview

Diabetes insipidus is caused by a variety of factors. The causes for each subtype of diabetes insipidus are classically different. It is important to identify these underlying causes of the various forms in order to appropriately diagnose and treat each type.

Causes

Central DI

  • Others causes include:[2]

Nephrogenic DI

The most common causes of ADH resistance severe enough to produce polyuria are hereditary nephrogenic DI (in children) and chronic lithium ingestion and hypercalcemia (in adults). Acquired causes are often partially reversible with cessation of the offending drug or correction of hypercalcemia. Other causes include:

Psychogenic DI

Psychogenic DI (also known as dipsogenic DI, primary polydipsia, or factitious diabetes insipidus) is characterized by a primary increase in water intake. Some of the major causes include:

  • Psychiatric illnesses
  • Use of phenothiazine, which can lead to the sensation of a dry mouth
  • Hypothalamic lesions that directly affect the thirst center
  • Infiltrative disease such as sarcoidosis

Gestational DI

Gestational diabetes insipidus is a very rare complication of pregnancy. However, undiagnosed and untreated cases may lead to serious complications in both mother and fetus. The only cause that has been associated with this disorder is pregnancy. It usually causes mild polyuria, which can be treated with desmopressin; if left untreated, it can progress to more severe complications.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Kimmel DW, O'Neill BP (1983). "Systemic cancer presenting as diabetes insipidus. Clinical and radiographic features of 11 patients with a review of metastatic-induced diabetes insipidus". Cancer. 52 (12): 2355–8. PMID 6640507.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Maghnie M, Cosi G, Genovese E, Manca-Bitti ML, Cohen A, Zecca S; et al. (2000). "Central diabetes insipidus in children and young adults". N Engl J Med. 343 (14): 998–1007. doi:10.1056/NEJM200010053431403. PMID 11018166.
  3. ↑ Burbach JP, Luckman SM, Murphy D, Gainer H (2001). "Gene regulation in the magnocellular hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system". Physiol Rev. 81 (3): 1197–267. PMID 11427695.
  4. ↑ Bischoff AN, Reiersen AM, Buttlaire A, Al-Lozi A, Doty T, Marshall BA; et al. (2015). "Selective cognitive and psychiatric manifestations in Wolfram Syndrome". Orphanet J Rare Dis. 10: 66. doi:10.1186/s13023-015-0282-1. PMC 4450481. PMID 26025012.
  5. ↑ Yagi H, Nagashima K, Miyake H, Tamai S, Onigata K, Yutani S; et al. (1994). "Familial congenital hypopituitarism with central diabetes insipidus". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 78 (4): 884–9. doi:10.1210/jcem.78.4.8157716. PMID 8157716.
  6. ↑ Hoyt WF, Kaplan SL, Grumbach MM, Glaser JS (1970). "Septo-optic dysplasia and pituitary dwarfism". Lancet. 1 (7652): 893–4. PMID 4191531.
  7. ↑ Seckl J, Dunger D (1989). "Postoperative diabetes insipidus". BMJ. 298 (6665): 2–3. PMC 1835326. PMID 2492841.
  8. ↑ Nemergut EC, Zuo Z, Jane JA, Laws ER (2005). "Predictors of diabetes insipidus after transsphenoidal surgery: a review of 881 patients". J Neurosurg. 103 (3): 448–54. doi:10.3171/jns.2005.103.3.0448. PMID 16235676.
  9. ↑ Grois N, Fahrner B, Arceci RJ, Henter JI, McClain K, Lassmann H; et al. (2010). "Central nervous system disease in Langerhans cell histiocytosis". J Pediatr. 156 (6): 873–81, 881.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.03.001. PMID 20434166.
  10. ↑ Dunger DB, Broadbent V, Yeoman E, Seckl JR, Lightman SL, Grant DB; et al. (1989). "The frequency and natural history of diabetes insipidus in children with Langerhans-cell histiocytosis". N Engl J Med. 321 (17): 1157–62. doi:10.1056/NEJM198910263211704. PMID 2797079.
  11. ↑ Canepa-Anson R, Williams M, Marshall J, Mitsuoka T, Lightman S, Sutton R (1984). "Mechanism of polyuria and natriuresis in atrioventricular nodal tachycardia". Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 289 (6449): 866–8. PMC 1443391. PMID 6434116.
  12. ↑ Gold PW, Kaye W, Robertson GL, Ebert M (1983). "Abnormalities in plasma and cerebrospinal-fluid arginine vasopressin in patients with anorexia nervosa". N Engl J Med. 308 (19): 1117–23. doi:10.1056/NEJM198305123081902. PMID 6835335.
  13. ↑ van Lieburg AF, Knoers NV, Monnens LA (1999). "Clinical presentation and follow-up of 30 patients with congenital nephrogenic diabetes insipidus". J Am Soc Nephrol. 10 (9): 1958–64. PMID 10477148.
  14. ↑ Sasaki S (2004). "Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus: update of genetic and clinical aspects". Nephrol Dial Transplant. 19 (6): 1351–3. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfh172. PMID 15004257.
  15. ↑ Nomura Y, Onigata K, Nagashima T, Yutani S, Mochizuki H, Nagashima K; et al. (1997). "Detection of skewed X-inactivation in two female carriers of vasopressin type 2 receptor gene mutation". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 82 (10): 3434–7. doi:10.1210/jcem.82.10.4312. PMID 9329382.
  16. ↑ Devonald MA, Karet FE (2004). "Renal epithelial traffic jams and one-way streets". J Am Soc Nephrol. 15 (6): 1370–81. PMID 15153548.
  17. ↑ Grünfeld JP, Rossier BC (2009). "Lithium nephrotoxicity revisited". Nat Rev Nephrol. 5 (5): 270–6. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2009.43. PMID 19384328.
  18. ↑ Berl T (1987). "The cAMP system in vasopressin-sensitive nephron segments of the vitamin D-treated rat". Kidney Int. 31 (5): 1065–71. PMID 3037155.
  19. ↑ Khositseth S, Uawithya P, Somparn P, Charngkaew K, Thippamom N, Hoffert JD; et al. (2015). "Autophagic degradation of aquaporin-2 is an early event in hypokalemia-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus". Sci Rep. 5: 18311. doi:10.1038/srep18311. PMC 4682130. PMID 26674602.
  20. ↑ CARONE FA, EPSTEIN FH (1960). "Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus caused by amyloid disease. Evidence in man of the role of the collecting ducts in concentrating urine". Am J Med. 29: 539–44. PMID 13807843.
  21. ↑ SHEARN MA, TU WH (1965). "NEPHROGENIC DIABETIC INSIPIDUS AND OTHER DEFECTS OF RENAL TUBULAR FUNCTION IN SJOERGREN'S SYNDROME". Am J Med. 39: 312–8. PMID 14320699.
  22. ↑ Garofeanu CG, Weir M, Rosas-Arellano MP, Henson G, Garg AX, Clark WF (2005). "Causes of reversible nephrogenic diabetes insipidus: a systematic review". Am J Kidney Dis. 45 (4): 626–37. PMID 15806465.
  23. ↑ Brewster UC, Hayslett JP (2005). "Diabetes insipidus in the third trimester of pregnancy". Obstet Gynecol. 105 (5 Pt 2): 1173–6. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000161811.02155.68. PMID 15863571.
  24. ↑ Anadoliiska A, Roussinov D (1993). "Clinical aspects of renal involvement in Bardet-Biedl syndrome". Int Urol Nephrol. 25 (5): 509–14. PMID 8270381.
  25. ↑ Peters M, Jeck N, Reinalter S, Leonhardt A, Tönshoff B, Klaus G Gü; et al. (2002). "Clinical presentation of genetically defined patients with hypokalemic salt-losing tubulopathies". Am J Med. 112 (3): 183–90. PMID 11893344.


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