Prostate cancer risk factors: Difference between revisions

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__NOTOC__
__NOTOC__
{{CMG}}
 
{{CMG}} {{sali}}
{{Prostate cancer}}
{{Prostate cancer}}
==Overview==
==Overview==
Common risk factors in the development of prostate cancer are [[diet (nutrition)|dietary]], [[lifestyle]], family history, African-American men, occupational factors, age, environmental factors, and medication.
Common [[risk factors]] in the development of prostate cancer are family history, African American men, [[dietary]] factors, [[obesity]], elevated [[blood]] levels of [[testosterone]], inherited gene mutation, [[inflammation]] of the prostate, tall adult height, exposure to pesticides, and occupational exposures.


==Risk Factors==
==Risk Factors==
===Common Risk Factors===
Common risk factors in the development of prostate cancer include:
Common risk factors in the development of prostate cancer include:
* [[Age]]
* [[Ethnicity]]
* [[Diet]]
:* Animal [[fat]]
:* Vegetables
:* [[Lycopene]] and tomato based products
:* [[Soy]] intake
:* [[omega 3-fatty acids]]
:* [[caffeine]]
* [[Vitamins]] and [[minerals]]
:* [[Multivitamins]]
:* [[Folic acid]] and [[Vitamin B12]]
:* [[selenium]]
:* [[zinc]]
:* [[Calcium]] and [[Vitamin D]]
* [[Cigarette]] [[Smoking]]
* [[Hormones]] levels and [[Obesity]]
:* [[Sex hormones]]
:* [[Insulin]] and [[Insulin like growth factor]]
:* [[Obesity]]
:* [[Physical activity]]
===Less Common Risk Factors===
*5 alpha reductase inhibitor
*[[Prostatitis]]
*[[Trichomonas vaginalis]] infection
* Environmental [[Carcinogen]]
:*[[Agent Orange]]
:*[[Choldecone]]
:*[[Bisphenol A]]
*[[NSAIDS]]
*[[Vasectomy]]
*[[Ultraviolet light]] exposure
*[[EBRT]] for rectal cancer
==AGE==
* [[Prostate cancer]] has strongest relationships between [[age]] and any human [[malignancy]].
* [[Prostate cancer]] rarely occurs before the age of 40.
* The [[incidence]] rises rapidly and the annual [[incidence]] of new cases of [[prostate cancer]] in white men in 1995 was approximately 0.1, 0.6, and 1 percent in men in their 50s, 60s, and 70s, respectively<ref name="pmid10379964">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hankey BF, Feuer EJ, Clegg LX, Hayes RB, Legler JM, Prorok PC, Ries LA, Merrill RM, Kaplan RS |title=Cancer surveillance series: interpreting trends in prostate cancer--part I: Evidence of the effects of screening in recent prostate cancer incidence, mortality, and survival rates |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=91 |issue=12 |pages=1017–24 |date=June 1999 |pmid=10379964 |doi= |url=}}</ref>.
==ETHNICITY==
* [[Prostate cancer]] is more common in black than white or Hispanic men.<ref name="pmid2005640">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baquet CR, Horm JW, Gibbs T, Greenwald P |title=Socioeconomic factors and cancer incidence among blacks and whites |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=83 |issue=8 |pages=551–7 |date=April 1991 |pmid=2005640 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*[[African American]] men have higher serum [[PSA]] levels, worse [[Gleason scores]], and more advanced stage of disease at the time of diagnosis<ref name="pmid10023717">{{cite journal |vauthors=Powell IJ, Banerjee M, Sakr W, Grignon D, Wood DP, Novallo M, Pontes E |title=Should African-American men be tested for prostate carcinoma at an earlier age than white men? |journal=Cancer |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=472–7 |date=January 1999 |pmid=10023717 |doi= |url=}}</ref>.
==DIET==
* The association between intake of [[nutrients]] and the risk of [[prostate cancer]] are available<ref name="pmid16278466">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chan JM, Gann PH, Giovannucci EL |title=Role of diet in prostate cancer development and progression |journal=J. Clin. Oncol. |volume=23 |issue=32 |pages=8152–60 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16278466 |doi=10.1200/JCO.2005.03.1492 |url=}}</ref>.
:*Animal fat —
:**A diet high in animal fat may be an important factor in the development of [[prostate cancer]]<ref name="pmid8105097">{{cite journal |vauthors=Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A, Chute CG, Chute CC, Willett WC |title=A prospective study of dietary fat and risk of prostate cancer |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=85 |issue=19 |pages=1571–9 |date=October 1993 |pmid=8105097 |doi= |url=}}</ref>.
:**Intake of large amounts of [[alpha-linolenic acid]] and low amounts of [[linoleic acid]] appear to be associated with increased risk<ref name="pmid19808637">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sinha R, Park Y, Graubard BI, Leitzmann MF, Hollenbeck A, Schatzkin A, Cross AJ |title=Meat and meat-related compounds and risk of prostate cancer in a large prospective cohort study in the United States |journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. |volume=170 |issue=9 |pages=1165–77 |date=November 2009 |pmid=19808637 |pmc=2781742 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwp280 |url=}}</ref>.
:*Vegetables —
:**A diet low in [[vegetables]] may be another risk factor for [[prostate cancer]]<ref name="pmid10620635">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cohen JH, Kristal AR, Stanford JL |title=Fruit and vegetable intakes and prostate cancer risk |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=61–8 |date=January 2000 |pmid=10620635 |doi= |url=}}</ref>.
:**There is higher [[prostate cancer]] risk in men who consume fewer than 14 servings of [[vegetables]] weekly.<ref name="pmid10620635">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cohen JH, Kristal AR, Stanford JL |title=Fruit and vegetable intakes and prostate cancer risk |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=61–8 |date=January 2000 |pmid=10620635 |doi= |url=}}</ref>.
:**There was no association between fruit and/or vegetable consumption and the risk of prostate cancer<ref name="pmid17652276">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kirsh VA, Peters U, Mayne ST, Subar AF, Chatterjee N, Johnson CC, Hayes RB |title=Prospective study of fruit and vegetable intake and risk of prostate cancer |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=99 |issue=15 |pages=1200–9 |date=August 2007 |pmid=17652276 |doi=10.1093/jnci/djm065 |url=}}</ref>
:*[[Lycopene]] and tomato based products —
:**Tomato-based products are rich in [[lycopene]] has potent [[anti-oxidant]] properties.
:**There is only limited evidence to support an association between [[tomato]] consumption and reduced [[prostate cancer]] risk<ref name="pmid17623802">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kavanaugh CJ, Trumbo PR, Ellwood KC |title=The U.S. Food and Drug Administration's evidence-based review for qualified health claims: tomatoes, lycopene, and cancer |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=99 |issue=14 |pages=1074–85 |date=July 2007 |pmid=17623802 |doi=10.1093/jnci/djm037 |url=}}</ref>.
:**Dietary intake of [[lycopene]] is associated with a lower incidence of [[prostate cancer]] and a decreased risk of lethal prostate cancer<ref name="pmid24463248">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zu K, Mucci L, Rosner BA, Clinton SK, Loda M, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E |title=Dietary lycopene, angiogenesis, and prostate cancer: a prospective study in the prostate-specific antigen era |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=106 |issue=2 |pages=djt430 |date=February 2014 |pmid=24463248 |pmc=3952200 |doi=10.1093/jnci/djt430 |url=}}</ref>.
:*Soy intake —
:**[[Phytoestrogens]] (flavones, isoflavones, lignans) are naturally occurring plant compounds that have [[estrogen]]-like activity.
:**[[Phytoestrogens]] found in soy foods may reduce [[prostate cancer]] risk either via their inherent [[estrogenic]] properties, or by inhibition of the enzyme [[5-AR]].
:*[[Omega-3 fatty acids]] —
:**High levels of [[omega-3 fatty acids]], such as [[fish oil], were associated with an increased risk of high grade [[prostate cancer]]<ref name="pmid21518693">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brasky TM, Till C, White E, Neuhouser ML, Song X, Goodman P, Thompson IM, King IB, Albanes D, Kristal AR |title=Serum phospholipid fatty acids and prostate cancer risk: results from the prostate cancer prevention trial |journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. |volume=173 |issue=12 |pages=1429–39 |date=June 2011 |pmid=21518693 |pmc=3145396 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwr027 |url=}}</ref>.
:*[[Coffee]] —
:**Increasing consumption of [[coffee]] appears to be associated with a decreased risk of lethal [[prostate cancer]].<ref name="pmid21586702">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wilson KM, Kasperzyk JL, Rider JR, Kenfield S, van Dam RM, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E, Mucci LA |title=Coffee consumption and prostate cancer risk and progression in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=103 |issue=11 |pages=876–84 |date=June 2011 |pmid=21586702 |pmc=3110172 |doi=10.1093/jnci/djr151 |url=}}</ref>
==Vitamin and mineral supplements==
:*[[Multivitamins]]—
:**The regular use of [[multivitamins]] does not appear to affect the risk of early or localized [[prostate cancer]]<ref name="pmid17505071">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lawson KA, Wright ME, Subar A, Mouw T, Hollenbeck A, Schatzkin A, Leitzmann MF |title=Multivitamin use and risk of prostate cancer in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=99 |issue=10 |pages=754–64 |date=May 2007 |pmid=17505071 |doi=10.1093/jnci/djk177 |url=}}</ref>.
:**There is increased risk of advanced or fatal [[prostate cancer]] in men using relatively large amounts of [[multivitamins]]<ref name="pmid16049802">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stevens VL, McCullough ML, Diver WR, Rodriguez C, Jacobs EJ, Thun MJ, Calle EE |title=Use of multivitamins and prostate cancer mortality in a large cohort of US men |journal=Cancer Causes Control |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=643–50 |date=August 2005 |pmid=16049802 |doi=10.1007/s10552-005-0384-5 |url=}}</ref>.
:*Folic acid and B12 —
:**High serum [[folic acid]] and [[B12 levels]] is associated with a small increase in the risk of prostate cancer.
:*[[Selenium]] —
:**High blood levels of [[selenium]] is associated with lower risk of aggressive disease (advanced-stage disease).
:*[[Zinc]] —
:**Studies have showed an association between [[zinc]] supplement use and [[prostate cancer]] risk. Supplemental zinc intake at doses of up to 100 mg/day was not associated with prostate cancer risk. However, men who consumed more than 100 mg/day of supplemental zinc had a relative risk of advanced prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid12837837">{{cite journal |vauthors=Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Wu K, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Giovannucci EL |title=Zinc supplement use and risk of prostate cancer |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=95 |issue=13 |pages=1004–7 |date=July 2003 |pmid=12837837 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
:*[[Calcium]] and [[vitamin D]] —
:**Intake of dairy products and [[calcium]] and a higher risk of [[prostate cancer]] risk has been suggested.<ref name="pmid16492906">{{cite journal |vauthors=Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC |title=A prospective study of calcium intake and incident and fatal prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=203–10 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16492906 |doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0586 |url=}}</ref>.
:**Higher levels of [[vitamin D]] is associated with increased aggressiveness in those men diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]] (Gleason score ≥7 or stage III or IV disease)<ref name="pmid18505967">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ahn J, Peters U, Albanes D, Purdue MP, Abnet CC, Chatterjee N, Horst RL, Hollis BW, Huang WY, Shikany JM, Hayes RB |title=Serum vitamin D concentration and prostate cancer risk: a nested case-control study |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=100 |issue=11 |pages=796–804 |date=June 2008 |pmid=18505967 |pmc=3703748 |doi=10.1093/jnci/djn152 |url=}}</ref>.
==Cigarette Smoking==
*Cigarette [[smoking]] may have an effect on both the risk of developing [[prostate cancer]] and its prognosis once a diagnosis is established.
*There is increased risk for [[prostate cancer]] in [[smokers]]<ref name="pmid25139338">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ho T, Howard LE, Vidal AC, Gerber L, Moreira D, McKeever M, Andriole G, Castro-Santamaria R, Freedland SJ |title=Smoking and risk of low- and high-grade prostate cancer: results from the REDUCE study |journal=Clin. Cancer Res. |volume=20 |issue=20 |pages=5331–8 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25139338 |pmc=4199866 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-13-2394 |url=}}</ref>.
*There are consistent data on the association of [[smoking]] at the time of [[diagnosis]] with risk of a [[cancer]] [[recurrence]] and [[cancer]]-related mortality<ref name="pmid21693743">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kenfield SA, Stampfer MJ, Chan JM, Giovannucci E |title=Smoking and prostate cancer survival and recurrence |journal=JAMA |volume=305 |issue=24 |pages=2548–55 |date=June 2011 |pmid=21693743 |pmc=3562349 |doi=10.1001/jama.2011.879 |url=}}</ref>.
*Men with [[prostate cancer]] should be strongly encouraged to stop [[smoking]].
==HORMONE LEVELS AND OBESITY==


* Family history
:* [[Sex hormones]] and [[Insulin like growth factor]]-
* African American
:**Relationship between [[serum]] [[sex hormone]] levels and [[prostate cancer]] come from a pooled analysis of 18 prospective trials.<ref name="pmid18230794">{{cite journal |vauthors=Roddam AW, Allen NE, Appleby P, Key TJ |title=Endogenous sex hormones and prostate cancer: a collaborative analysis of 18 prospective studies |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=170–83 |date=February 2008 |pmid=18230794 |pmc=6126902 |doi=10.1093/jnci/djm323 |url=}}</ref>.
:**Serum concentrations of [[testosterone]], [[dihydrotestosterone]] (DHT), and other active [[androgen]] derivatives obtained prior to [[diagnosis]] are not associated with an increased risk of subsequent [[prostate cancer]].
:** There is no association seen with pre-diagnosis serum levels of [[estrogens]] ([[estradiol]], free [[estradiol]]).
:**[[Testosterone]] supplementation as a treatment for [[hypogonadism]] does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of [[prostate cancer]].
:**There is modest increased risk of [[prostate cancer]] in men with the highest circulating levels of [[IGF]]<ref name="pmid18838726">{{cite journal |vauthors=Roddam AW, Allen NE, Appleby P, Key TJ, Ferrucci L, Carter HB, Metter EJ, Chen C, Weiss NS, Fitzpatrick A, Hsing AW, Lacey JV, Helzlsouer K, Rinaldi S, Riboli E, Kaaks R, Janssen JA, Wildhagen MF, Schröder FH, Platz EA, Pollak M, Giovannucci E, Schaefer C, Quesenberry CP, Vogelman JH, Severi G, English DR, Giles GG, Stattin P, Hallmans G, Johansson M, Chan JM, Gann P, Oliver SE, Holly JM, Donovan J, Meyer F, Bairati I, Galan P |title=Insulin-like growth factors, their binding proteins, and prostate cancer risk: analysis of individual patient data from 12 prospective studies |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=149 |issue=7 |pages=461–71, W83–8 |date=October 2008 |pmid=18838726 |pmc=2584869 |doi= |url=}}</ref>.


===Dietary===
:*[[Obesity]]-
While some dietary factors have been associated with prostate cancer the evidence is still tentative.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Venkateswaran V, Klotz LH | title = Diet and prostate cancer: mechanisms of action and implications for chemoprevention | journal = Nature Reviews Urology | volume = 7 | issue = 8 | pages = 442–53 | date = Aug 2010 | pmid = 20647991 | doi = 10.1038/nrurol.2010.102 }}</ref> Evidence supports little role for dietary fruits and vegetables in prostate cancer occurrence.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Key TJ | title = Fruit and vegetables and cancer risk | journal = British journal of cancer | volume = 104 | issue = 1 | pages = 6–11 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21119663 | pmc = 3039795 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6606032 | quote = For other common cancers, including colorectal, breast and prostate cancer, epidemiological studies suggest little or no association between total fruit and vegetable consumption and risk. }}</ref> Red meat and processed meat also appear to have little effect in human studies.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Alexander DD, Mink PJ, Cushing CA, Sceurman B | title = A review and meta-analysis of prospective studies of red and processed meat intake and prostate cancer | journal = Nutrition journal | volume = 9 | issue = | pages = 50 | year = 2010 | pmid = 21044319 | pmc = 2987772 | doi = 10.1186/1475-2891-9-50 }}</ref> Higher meat consumption has been associated with a higher risk in some studies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/cooked-meats|work=National Cancer Institute}}</ref>
:**There is a small but statistically significant association between [[obesity]] and [[prostate cancer]] [[incidence]]<ref name="pmid16933050">{{cite journal |vauthors=MacInnis RJ, English DR |title=Body size and composition and prostate cancer risk: systematic review and meta-regression analysis |journal=Cancer Causes Control |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=989–1003 |date=October 2006 |pmid=16933050 |doi=10.1007/s10552-006-0049-z |url=}}</ref>.
:**There is a clear relationship between [[obesity]] and disease aggressiveness.<ref name="pmid23219374">{{cite journal |vauthors=Allott EH, Masko EM, Freedland SJ |title=Obesity and prostate cancer: weighing the evidence |journal=Eur. Urol. |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=800–9 |date=May 2013 |pmid=23219374 |pmc=3597763 |doi=10.1016/j.eururo.2012.11.013 |url=}}</ref>.


Lower [[blood]] levels of [[vitamin D]] may increase the risk of developing prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Wigle DT, Turner MC, Gomes J, Parent ME | title = Role of hormonal and other factors in human prostate cancer | journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part B, Critical Reviews | volume = 11 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 242–59 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18368555 | doi = 10.1080/10937400701873548 }}</ref><!-- OFF TOPIC[[Green tea]] may be protective (due to its [[Tea catechins|catechins]] content),<ref name="pmid16613539">{{cite journal | author = Lee AH, Fraser ML, Meng X, Binns CW | title = Protective effects of green tea against prostate cancer | journal = Expert Rev Anticancer Ther | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | pages = 507–13 |date=April 2006 | pmid = 16613539 | doi = 10.1586/14737140.6.4.507 }}</ref> although the most comprehensive clinical study indicates that it has no protective effect.<ref name="pmid16804523">{{cite journal | author = Kikuchi N, Ohmori K, Shimazu T, Nakaya N, Kuriyama S, Nishino Y, Tsubono Y, Tsuji I | title = No association between green tea and prostate cancer risk in Japanese men: the Ohsaki Cohort Study | journal = Br. J. Cancer | volume = 95 | issue = 3 | pages = 371–3 |date=August 2006 | pmid = 16804523 | pmc = 2360636 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603230 }}</ref> Other holistic methods are also studied.<ref name=Katz>{{Cite book|last=Katz |first=Aaron |authorlink=http://www.holisticurology.columbia.edu/_physicians/Katz.html |title=Guide to Prostate Health: From Conventional to Holistic Therapies |publisher=Freedom Press |year=2006 |isbn=1-893910-37-7}}</ref> Higher [[selenium]] blood levels have been associated with a lower risk of prostate cancer,<ref name="pmid22648711">{{cite journal | author = Hurst R, Hooper L, Norat T, Lau R, Aune D, Greenwood DC, Vieira R, Collings R, Harvey LJ, Sterne JA, Beynon R, Savović J, Fairweather-Tait SJ | title = Selenium and prostate cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 96 | issue = 1 | pages = 111–22 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22648711 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.111.033373 }}</ref> a trial of supplementation however did not find benefit.<ref>{{cite book|last=Research|first=World Cancer Research Fund ; American Institute for Cancer|title=Policy and action for cancer prevention : food, nutrition, and physical activity : a global perspective|year=2007|publisher=American Institute for Cancer Research|location=Washington, D.C|isbn=978-0-9722522-4-9|pages=150}}</ref>-->
:*[[Physical activity]]-
:**There was no association overall between [[prostate cancer]] [[incidence]] and total, vigorous or non-vigorous [[physical activity]] in the entire [[population]].
:**However, men over the age of 65 who were in the highest category of vigorous activity (more than three hours per week of vigorous activity) had a significantly lower risk of advanced [[prostate cancer]].  
:**Another report from the same investigators suggests that young lean men who are more physically active have an increased risk of developing [[metastatic]] disease and [[fatal]] [[prostate cancer]] if they had a high energy intake<ref name="pmid14679023">{{cite journal |vauthors=Platz EA, Leitzmann MF, Michaud DS, Willett WC, Giovannucci E |title=Interrelation of energy intake, body size, and physical activity with prostate cancer in a large prospective cohort study |journal=Cancer Res. |volume=63 |issue=23 |pages=8542–8 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14679023 |doi= |url=}}</ref>.


[[Folic acid]] [[Dietary supplement|supplements]] have no effect on the risk of developing prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Qin X, Cui Y, Shen L, Sun N, Zhang Y, Li J, Xu X, Wang B, Xu X, Huo Y, Wang X | title = Folic acid supplementation and cancer risk: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | journal = International Journal of Cancer. Journal International Du Cancer | volume = 133 | issue = 5 | pages = 1033–41 | date = Jan 22, 2013 | pmid = 23338728 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.28038 }}</ref>
==5-alpha reductase inhibitors==
*  [[5-alpha reductase inhibitors]] lower the [[prostate-specific antigen]] ([[PSA]]), they potentially increase the risk of high-grade [[prostate cancer]].


===Medication exposure===
==Prostatitis==
There are also some links between prostate cancer and medications, medical procedures, and medical conditions.<ref name="pmid15998950">{{cite journal | author = Jacobs EJ, Rodriguez C, Mondul AM, Connell CJ, Henley SJ, Calle EE, Thun MJ | title = A large cohort study of aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and prostate cancer incidence | journal = J. Natl. Cancer Inst. | volume = 97 | issue = 13 | pages = 975–80 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 15998950 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/dji173 }}</ref> Use of the [[hypolipidaemic agent|cholesterol-lowering drugs]] known as the [[statin]]s may also decrease prostate cancer risk.<ref name="pmid16014776">{{cite journal | author = Shannon J, Tewoderos S, Garzotto M, Beer TM, Derenick R, Palma A, Farris PE | title = Statins and prostate cancer risk: a case-control study | journal = Am. J. Epidemiol. | volume = 162 | issue = 4 | pages = 318–25 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16014776 | doi = 10.1093/aje/kwi203 }}</ref>
*There is significant but modest increase (approximately 1.5- to 2-fold) in the risk of [[prostate cancer]] in men with [[prostatitis]].<ref name="pmid29473374">{{cite journal |vauthors=Perletti G, Monti E, Magri V, Cai T, Cleves A, Trinchieri A, Montanari E |title=The association between prostatitis and prostate cancer. Systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Arch Ital Urol Androl |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=259–265 |date=December 2017 |pmid=29473374 |doi=10.4081/aiua.2017.4.259 |url=}}</ref>


[[Infection]] or [[inflammation]] of the prostate ([[prostatitis]]) may increase the chance for prostate cancer while another study shows infection may help prevent prostate cancer by increasing blood to the area. In particular, infection with the [[sexually transmitted infection]]s [[Chlamydia infection|chlamydia]], [[gonorrhea]], or [[syphilis]] seems to increase risk.<ref name="pmid12100928">{{cite journal | author = Dennis LK, Lynch CF, Torner JC | title = Epidemiologic association between prostatitis and prostate cancer | journal = Urology | volume = 60 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–83 | date = July 2002 | pmid = 12100928 | doi = 10.1016/S0090-4295(02)01637-0 }}</ref> Finally, [[obesity]]<ref name="pmid12711737">{{cite journal | author = Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ | title = Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults | journal = N. Engl. J. Med. | volume = 348 | issue = 17 | pages = 1625–38 | date = April 2003 | pmid = 12711737 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa021423 }}</ref> and elevated blood levels of [[testosterone]]<ref name="pmid8757191">{{cite journal | author = Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Ma J, Longcope C, Stampfer MJ | title = Prospective study of sex hormone levels and risk of prostate cancer | journal = J. Natl. Cancer Inst. | volume = 88 | issue = 16 | pages = 1118–26 | date = August 1996 | pmid = 8757191 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/88.16.1118 }}</ref> may increase the risk for prostate cancer. There is an association between vasectomy and prostate cancer however more research is needed to determine if this is a causative relationship.<ref name="bccancer.bc.ca">{{cite web|url=http://www.bccancer.bc.ca |title=? |work= |publisher= |accessdate=9 August 2010}}</ref>
==Trichomonas vaginalis infection==
*Studies have shown an increased [[incidence]] of [[seropositivity]] for [[antibodies]] against [[trichomonas vaginalis]] in men who subsequently are diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]]<ref name="pmid16702374">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sutcliffe S, Giovannucci E, Alderete JF, Chang TH, Gaydos CA, Zenilman JM, De Marzo AM, Willett WC, Platz EA |title=Plasma antibodies against Trichomonas vaginalis and subsequent risk of prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=939–45 |date=May 2006 |pmid=16702374 |doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0781 |url=}}</ref>.  
*This association was more pronounced in those with more advanced or higher [[Gleason grade]] [[tumors]].


Research released in May 2007, found that US war veterans who had been exposed to [[Agent Orange]] had a 48% increased risk of prostate cancer recurrence following surgery.<ref name="aorange">{{cite web|url=https://my.mcg.edu/portal/page/portal/News/archive/2007/Veterans%20exposed%20to%20Agent%20%20Orange%20have%20higher%20rates%20of%20prost |title=Veterans exposed to Agent Orange have higher rates of prostate cancer recurrence |date=May 20, 2007 |work=Medical College of Georgia News }}</ref>
==Environmental carcinogens==


===Infectious disease===
:*Agent Orange —
An association with [[gonorrhea]] has been found, but a mechanism for this relationship has not been identified.<ref name="CainiGandini2014"/>
:**Exposure to [[Agent Orange]], an [[herbicide]] defoliant sprayed extensively in Vietnam between 1965 and 1971 that contained [[dioxins]], appears to be associated with an increased [[incidence]] of [[prostate cancer]].
:**The cases of [[prostate cancer]] arising in those exposed to [[Agent Orange]] appear to be more aggressive<ref name="pmid11435832">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zafar MB, Terris MK |title=Prostate cancer detection in veterans with a history of Agent Orange exposure |journal=J. Urol. |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=100–3 |date=July 2001 |pmid=11435832 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
:*Chlordecone —
:**[[Chlordecone]] is an [[organochlorine]] [[insecticide]] with [[estrogenic]] properties, which was widely used in the West Indies from 1973 to 1993.<ref name="pmid20566993">{{cite journal |vauthors=Multigner L, Ndong JR, Giusti A, Romana M, Delacroix-Maillard H, Cordier S, Jégou B, Thome JP, Blanchet P |title=Chlordecone exposure and risk of prostate cancer |journal=J. Clin. Oncol. |volume=28 |issue=21 |pages=3457–62 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20566993 |doi=10.1200/JCO.2009.27.2153 |url=}}</ref>.
:*Bisphenol A —
:**Exposure to abnormal concentrations of [[estrogen]] early in life may initiate changes in [[prostate]] [[stem cells]].
:**These changes have been postulated to persist into later life and potentially contribute to the development of prostate cancer<ref name="pmid24564415">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lobaccaro JM, Trousson A |title=Environmental estrogen exposure during fetal life: a time bomb for prostate cancer |journal=Endocrinology |volume=155 |issue=3 |pages=656–8 |date=March 2014 |pmid=24564415 |doi=10.1210/en.2014-1057 |url=}}</ref>.


In 2006, a previously unknown retrovirus, [[Xenotropic MuLV-related virus]] or XMRV, was associated with human prostate tumors,<ref name="pmid16609730">{{cite journal | author = Urisman A, Molinaro RJ, Fischer N, Plummer SJ, Casey G, Klein EA, Malathi K, Magi-Galluzzi C, Tubbs RR, Ganem D, Silverman RH, DeRisi JL | title = Identification of a Novel Gammaretrovirus in Prostate Tumors of Patients Homozygous for R462Q RNASEL Variant | journal = PLoS Pathog. | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = e25 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16609730 | pmc = 1434790 | doi = 10.1371/journal.ppat.0020025 }} {{open access}}</ref> but subsequent reports on the virus were contradictory,<ref name="pmid19805305">{{cite journal | author = Schlaberg R, Choe DJ, Brown KR, Thaker HM, Singh IR | title = XMRV is present in malignant prostatic epithelium and is associated with prostate cancer, especially high-grade tumors | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 106 | issue = 38 | pages = 16351–6 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19805305 | pmc = 2739868 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0906922106 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19835577">{{cite journal | author = Hohn O, Krause H, Barbarotto P, Niederstadt L, Beimforde N, Denner J, Miller K, Kurth R, Bannert N | title = Lack of evidence for xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV) in German prostate cancer patients | journal = Retrovirology | volume = 6 | issue =  | pages = 92 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19835577 | pmc = 2770519 | doi = 10.1186/1742-4690-6-92 }}</ref> and the original 2006 finding was instead due to a previously undetected contamination.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lee D, Das Gupta J, Gaughan C, Steffen I, Tang N, Luk KC, Qiu X, Urisman A, Fischer N, Molinaro R, Broz M, Schochetman G, Klein EA, Ganem D, Derisi JL, Simmons G, Hackett J, Silverman RH, Chiu CY | title = In-Depth Investigation of Archival and Prospectively Collected Samples Reveals No Evidence for XMRV Infection in Prostate Cancer | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 9 | pages = e44954 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23028701 | pmc = 3445615 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0044954 | editor1-last = Tachedjian | editor1-first = Gilda }} {{open access}}</ref> The journals ''Science'' and ''PlosONE'' both retracted XMRV related articles.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Alberts B | title = Retraction | journal = Science | volume = 334 | issue = 6063 | pages = 1636 | date = Dec 23, 2011 | pmid = 22194552 | doi = 10.1126/science.334.6063.1636-a }} {{open access}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = Retraction. Identification of a novel gammaretrovirus in prostate tumors of patients homozygous for R462Q RNASEL variant | journal = PLoS Pathogens | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | pages = 10.1371/annotation/7e2efc01–2e9b–4e9b–aef0–87ab0e4e4732 | date = September 2012 | pmid = 23028303 | pmc = 3445601 | doi = 10.1371/annotation/7e2efc01-2e9b-4e9b-aef0-87ab0e4e4732 | editor1-last = Ross | editor1-first = Susan }} {{open access}}</ref>
==NSAIDs==
*Intake of [[aspirin]] and other [[nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs]] ([[NSAIDs]]) has been associated with a decreased risk of some cancers, particularly [[colorectal cancer]].  
*An inverse association between long-term [[NSAID]] use and [[prostate cancer]] risk has also been suggested.<ref name="pmid24687637">{{cite journal |vauthors=Huang TB, Yan Y, Guo ZF, Zhang XL, Liu H, Geng J, Yao XD, Zheng JH |title=Aspirin use and the risk of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of 24 epidemiologic studies |journal=Int Urol Nephrol |volume=46 |issue=9 |pages=1715–28 |date=September 2014 |pmid=24687637 |doi=10.1007/s11255-014-0703-4 |url=}}</ref>.  
*There is a decreased risk for the overall [[incidence]] of [[prostate cancer]] and for advanced [[prostate cancer]].


===Sexual factors===
==Vasectomy==  
Several case-control studies have shown that having many lifetime sexual partners or starting sexual activity early in life substantially increases the risk of prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Dennis LK, Dawson DV | title = Meta-analysis of measures of sexual activity and prostate cancer | journal = Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.) | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 72–9 | date = January 2002 | pmid = 11805589 | doi = 10.1097/00001648-200201000-00012 }}</ref><ref name="Rosenblatt 1152–8">{{cite journal | author = Rosenblatt KA, Wicklund KG, Stanford JL | title = Sexual factors and the risk of prostate cancer | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 153 | issue = 12 | pages = 1152–8 | date = Jun 15, 2001 | pmid = 11415949 | doi = 10.1093/aje/153.12.1152 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Sarma AV, McLaughlin JC, Wallner LP, Dunn RL, Cooney KA, Schottenfeld D, Montie JE, Wei JT | title = Sexual behavior, sexually transmitted diseases and prostatitis: the risk of prostate cancer in black men | journal = The Journal of Urology | volume = 176 | issue = 3 | pages = 1108–13 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16890703 | doi = 10.1016/j.juro.2006.04.075 }}</ref>
*A prior [[vasectomy]] increases risk of getting [[prostate cancer]] is controversial, with some, but not all, studies showing a weak association.<ref name="pmid28375714">{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith K, Byrne, Castaño JM, Chirlaque MD, Lilja H, Agudo A, Ardanaz E, Rodríguez-Barranco M, Boeing H, Kaaks R, Khaw KT, Larrañaga N, Navarro C, Olsen A, Overvad K, Perez-Cornago A, Rohrmann S, Sánchez MJ, Tjønneland A, Tsilidis KK, Johansson M, Riboli E, Key TJ, Travis RC |title=Vasectomy and Prostate Cancer Risk in the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) |journal=J. Clin. Oncol. |volume=35 |issue=12 |pages=1297–1303 |date=April 2017 |pmid=28375714 |pmc=5455458 |doi=10.1200/JCO.2016.70.0062 |url=}}</ref>.
*There was no statistically significant association between prior [[vasectomy]] and [[prostate cancer]] incidence or death.
*In a [[cohort study]] of almost 50,000 men in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, 6023 men developed prostate cancer<ref name="pmid25002716">{{cite journal |vauthors=Siddiqui MM, Wilson KM, Epstein MM, Rider JR, Martin NE, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci EL, Mucci LA |title=Vasectomy and risk of aggressive prostate cancer: a 24-year follow-up study |journal=J. Clin. Oncol. |volume=32 |issue=27 |pages=3033–8 |date=September 2014 |pmid=25002716 |pmc=4162499 |doi=10.1200/JCO.2013.54.8446 |url=}}</ref>.
*On [[multivariable analysis]], [[vasectomy]] was associated with a [[statistically significant]] increase in the risk of [[high-grade]], lethal, or advanced [[prostate cancer]].
*A [[meta-analysis]] that incorporated data from multiple studies suggest that there is a weak association between [[vasectomy]] and [[prostate cancer]]<ref name="pmid28715534">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bhindi B, Wallis CJD, Nayan M, Farrell AM, Trost LW, Hamilton RJ, Kulkarni GS, Finelli A, Fleshner NE, Boorjian SA, Karnes RJ |title=The Association Between Vasectomy and Prostate Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |journal=JAMA Intern Med |volume=177 |issue=9 |pages=1273–1286 |date=September 2017 |pmid=28715534 |pmc=5710573 |doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.2791 |url=}}</ref>.


While the available evidence is weak,<ref>{{cite book|title=Male Reproductive Cancers|year=2010|publisher=Springer New York|isbn=9781441904508|pages=27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAYPxgOoBK4C&pg=PA27}}</ref> tentative results suggest that frequent [[ejaculation]] may decrease the risk of prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite book|last=Scardino|first=Peter|title=Comprehensive textbook of genitourinary oncology|year=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781749848|pages=16|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jaLRxFFEwNsC&pg=PA16|edition=3rd}}</ref> A study, over eight years, showed that those that ejaculated most frequently (over 21 times per month on average) were less likely to get prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Leitzmann|first1=MF|last2=Platz|first2=EA|last3=Stampfer
==Ultraviolet light exposure==
|first3=MJ|last4=Willett|first4=WC|last5=Giovannucci|first5=E|title=Ejaculation frequency and subsequent risk of prostate cancer.|journal=JAMA|date=7 April 2004|volume=291|issue=13|pages=1578–86|pmid=15069045|doi=10.1001/jama.291.13.1578}}</ref> The results were broadly similar to the findings of a smaller Australian study.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Giles|first1=GG|last2=Severi |first2=G|last3=English|first3=DR|last4=McCredie |first4=MR|last5=Borland|first5=R|last6=Boyle|first6=P|last7=Hopper|first7=JL|title=Sexual factors and prostate cancer.|journal=BJU international|date=August 2003|volume=92|issue=3|pages=211–6|pmid=12887469|doi=10.1046/j.1464-410x.2003.04319.x}}</ref>
*In one [[case-control study]] exposure to [[ultraviolet]] (UV) light had a protective effect on the development of [[prostate cancer]]<ref name="pmid11530156">{{cite journal |vauthors=Luscombe CJ, Fryer AA, French ME, Liu S, Saxby MF, Jones PW, Strange RC |title=Exposure to ultraviolet radiation: association with susceptibility and age at presentation with prostate cancer |journal=Lancet |volume=358 |issue=9282 |pages=641–2 |date=August 2001 |pmid=11530156 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05788-9 |url=}}</ref>.
*The mechanism behind this association is not clear but involvement of [[vitamin D]] and its [[receptor]] has been hypothesized<ref name="pmid17540555">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tuohimaa P, Pukkala E, Scélo G, Olsen JH, Brewster DH, Hemminki K, Tracey E, Weiderpass E, Kliewer EV, Pompe-Kirn V, McBride ML, Martos C, Chia KS, Tonita JM, Jonasson JG, Boffetta P, Brennan P |title=Does solar exposure, as indicated by the non-melanoma skin cancers, protect from solid cancers: vitamin D as a possible explanation |journal=Eur. J. Cancer |volume=43 |issue=11 |pages=1701–12 |date=July 2007 |pmid=17540555 |doi=10.1016/j.ejca.2007.04.018 |url=}}</ref>.


==EBRT for rectal cancer==
*External beam radiation therapy (EBRT) for prostate cancer is associated with an increased risk of rectal cancer.
*RT for rectal cancer has not been associated with an increased risk of subsequent prostate cancer.
*In a study based upon the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database, the risk of prostate cancer was decreased by 72 percent in 1572 men who had previously received EBRT as a component of their treatment for rectal cancer<ref name="pmid18098220">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hoffman KE, Hong TS, Zietman AL, Russell AH |title=External beam radiation treatment for rectal cancer is associated with a decrease in subsequent prostate cancer diagnosis |journal=Cancer |volume=112 |issue=4 |pages=943–9 |date=February 2008 |pmid=18098220 |doi=10.1002/cncr.23241 |url=}}</ref>.


==References==
==References==
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Latest revision as of 17:47, 20 February 2019


Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Syed Musadiq Ali M.B.B.S.[2]

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Overview

Common risk factors in the development of prostate cancer are family history, African American men, dietary factors, obesity, elevated blood levels of testosterone, inherited gene mutation, inflammation of the prostate, tall adult height, exposure to pesticides, and occupational exposures.

Risk Factors

Common Risk Factors

Common risk factors in the development of prostate cancer include:

Less Common Risk Factors

AGE

ETHNICITY

DIET

Vitamin and mineral supplements

  • Multivitamins—
  • Folic acid and B12 —
    • High serum folic acid and B12 levels is associated with a small increase in the risk of prostate cancer.
  • Selenium —
    • High blood levels of selenium is associated with lower risk of aggressive disease (advanced-stage disease).
  • Zinc —
    • Studies have showed an association between zinc supplement use and prostate cancer risk. Supplemental zinc intake at doses of up to 100 mg/day was not associated with prostate cancer risk. However, men who consumed more than 100 mg/day of supplemental zinc had a relative risk of advanced prostate cancer.[15]
  • Calcium and vitamin D —
    • Intake of dairy products and calcium and a higher risk of prostate cancer risk has been suggested.[16].
    • Higher levels of vitamin D is associated with increased aggressiveness in those men diagnosed with prostate cancer (Gleason score ≥7 or stage III or IV disease)[17].

Cigarette Smoking

HORMONE LEVELS AND OBESITY

  • Physical activity-
    • There was no association overall between prostate cancer incidence and total, vigorous or non-vigorous physical activity in the entire population.
    • However, men over the age of 65 who were in the highest category of vigorous activity (more than three hours per week of vigorous activity) had a significantly lower risk of advanced prostate cancer.
    • Another report from the same investigators suggests that young lean men who are more physically active have an increased risk of developing metastatic disease and fatal prostate cancer if they had a high energy intake[24].

5-alpha reductase inhibitors

Prostatitis

Trichomonas vaginalis infection

Environmental carcinogens

NSAIDs

Vasectomy

Ultraviolet light exposure

EBRT for rectal cancer

  • External beam radiation therapy (EBRT) for prostate cancer is associated with an increased risk of rectal cancer.
  • RT for rectal cancer has not been associated with an increased risk of subsequent prostate cancer.
  • In a study based upon the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database, the risk of prostate cancer was decreased by 72 percent in 1572 men who had previously received EBRT as a component of their treatment for rectal cancer[36].

References

  1. ↑ Hankey BF, Feuer EJ, Clegg LX, Hayes RB, Legler JM, Prorok PC, Ries LA, Merrill RM, Kaplan RS (June 1999). "Cancer surveillance series: interpreting trends in prostate cancer--part I: Evidence of the effects of screening in recent prostate cancer incidence, mortality, and survival rates". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 91 (12): 1017–24. PMID 10379964.
  2. ↑ Baquet CR, Horm JW, Gibbs T, Greenwald P (April 1991). "Socioeconomic factors and cancer incidence among blacks and whites". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 83 (8): 551–7. PMID 2005640.
  3. ↑ Powell IJ, Banerjee M, Sakr W, Grignon D, Wood DP, Novallo M, Pontes E (January 1999). "Should African-American men be tested for prostate carcinoma at an earlier age than white men?". Cancer. 85 (2): 472–7. PMID 10023717.
  4. ↑ Chan JM, Gann PH, Giovannucci EL (November 2005). "Role of diet in prostate cancer development and progression". J. Clin. Oncol. 23 (32): 8152–60. doi:10.1200/JCO.2005.03.1492. PMID 16278466.
  5. ↑ Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A, Chute CG, Chute CC, Willett WC (October 1993). "A prospective study of dietary fat and risk of prostate cancer". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 85 (19): 1571–9. PMID 8105097.
  6. ↑ Sinha R, Park Y, Graubard BI, Leitzmann MF, Hollenbeck A, Schatzkin A, Cross AJ (November 2009). "Meat and meat-related compounds and risk of prostate cancer in a large prospective cohort study in the United States". Am. J. Epidemiol. 170 (9): 1165–77. doi:10.1093/aje/kwp280. PMC 2781742. PMID 19808637.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Cohen JH, Kristal AR, Stanford JL (January 2000). "Fruit and vegetable intakes and prostate cancer risk". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 92 (1): 61–8. PMID 10620635.
  8. ↑ Kirsh VA, Peters U, Mayne ST, Subar AF, Chatterjee N, Johnson CC, Hayes RB (August 2007). "Prospective study of fruit and vegetable intake and risk of prostate cancer". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 99 (15): 1200–9. doi:10.1093/jnci/djm065. PMID 17652276.
  9. ↑ Kavanaugh CJ, Trumbo PR, Ellwood KC (July 2007). "The U.S. Food and Drug Administration's evidence-based review for qualified health claims: tomatoes, lycopene, and cancer". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 99 (14): 1074–85. doi:10.1093/jnci/djm037. PMID 17623802.
  10. ↑ Zu K, Mucci L, Rosner BA, Clinton SK, Loda M, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E (February 2014). "Dietary lycopene, angiogenesis, and prostate cancer: a prospective study in the prostate-specific antigen era". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 106 (2): djt430. doi:10.1093/jnci/djt430. PMC 3952200. PMID 24463248.
  11. ↑ Brasky TM, Till C, White E, Neuhouser ML, Song X, Goodman P, Thompson IM, King IB, Albanes D, Kristal AR (June 2011). "Serum phospholipid fatty acids and prostate cancer risk: results from the prostate cancer prevention trial". Am. J. Epidemiol. 173 (12): 1429–39. doi:10.1093/aje/kwr027. PMC 3145396. PMID 21518693.
  12. ↑ Wilson KM, Kasperzyk JL, Rider JR, Kenfield S, van Dam RM, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E, Mucci LA (June 2011). "Coffee consumption and prostate cancer risk and progression in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 103 (11): 876–84. doi:10.1093/jnci/djr151. PMC 3110172. PMID 21586702.
  13. ↑ Lawson KA, Wright ME, Subar A, Mouw T, Hollenbeck A, Schatzkin A, Leitzmann MF (May 2007). "Multivitamin use and risk of prostate cancer in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 99 (10): 754–64. doi:10.1093/jnci/djk177. PMID 17505071.
  14. ↑ Stevens VL, McCullough ML, Diver WR, Rodriguez C, Jacobs EJ, Thun MJ, Calle EE (August 2005). "Use of multivitamins and prostate cancer mortality in a large cohort of US men". Cancer Causes Control. 16 (6): 643–50. doi:10.1007/s10552-005-0384-5. PMID 16049802.
  15. ↑ Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Wu K, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Giovannucci EL (July 2003). "Zinc supplement use and risk of prostate cancer". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 95 (13): 1004–7. PMID 12837837.
  16. ↑ Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC (February 2006). "A prospective study of calcium intake and incident and fatal prostate cancer". Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15 (2): 203–10. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0586. PMID 16492906.
  17. ↑ Ahn J, Peters U, Albanes D, Purdue MP, Abnet CC, Chatterjee N, Horst RL, Hollis BW, Huang WY, Shikany JM, Hayes RB (June 2008). "Serum vitamin D concentration and prostate cancer risk: a nested case-control study". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 100 (11): 796–804. doi:10.1093/jnci/djn152. PMC 3703748. PMID 18505967.
  18. ↑ Ho T, Howard LE, Vidal AC, Gerber L, Moreira D, McKeever M, Andriole G, Castro-Santamaria R, Freedland SJ (October 2014). "Smoking and risk of low- and high-grade prostate cancer: results from the REDUCE study". Clin. Cancer Res. 20 (20): 5331–8. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-13-2394. PMC 4199866. PMID 25139338.
  19. ↑ Kenfield SA, Stampfer MJ, Chan JM, Giovannucci E (June 2011). "Smoking and prostate cancer survival and recurrence". JAMA. 305 (24): 2548–55. doi:10.1001/jama.2011.879. PMC 3562349. PMID 21693743.
  20. ↑ Roddam AW, Allen NE, Appleby P, Key TJ (February 2008). "Endogenous sex hormones and prostate cancer: a collaborative analysis of 18 prospective studies". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 100 (3): 170–83. doi:10.1093/jnci/djm323. PMC 6126902. PMID 18230794.
  21. ↑ Roddam AW, Allen NE, Appleby P, Key TJ, Ferrucci L, Carter HB, Metter EJ, Chen C, Weiss NS, Fitzpatrick A, Hsing AW, Lacey JV, Helzlsouer K, Rinaldi S, Riboli E, Kaaks R, Janssen JA, Wildhagen MF, Schröder FH, Platz EA, Pollak M, Giovannucci E, Schaefer C, Quesenberry CP, Vogelman JH, Severi G, English DR, Giles GG, Stattin P, Hallmans G, Johansson M, Chan JM, Gann P, Oliver SE, Holly JM, Donovan J, Meyer F, Bairati I, Galan P (October 2008). "Insulin-like growth factors, their binding proteins, and prostate cancer risk: analysis of individual patient data from 12 prospective studies". Ann. Intern. Med. 149 (7): 461–71, W83–8. PMC 2584869. PMID 18838726.
  22. ↑ MacInnis RJ, English DR (October 2006). "Body size and composition and prostate cancer risk: systematic review and meta-regression analysis". Cancer Causes Control. 17 (8): 989–1003. doi:10.1007/s10552-006-0049-z. PMID 16933050.
  23. ↑ Allott EH, Masko EM, Freedland SJ (May 2013). "Obesity and prostate cancer: weighing the evidence". Eur. Urol. 63 (5): 800–9. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2012.11.013. PMC 3597763. PMID 23219374.
  24. ↑ Platz EA, Leitzmann MF, Michaud DS, Willett WC, Giovannucci E (December 2003). "Interrelation of energy intake, body size, and physical activity with prostate cancer in a large prospective cohort study". Cancer Res. 63 (23): 8542–8. PMID 14679023.
  25. ↑ Perletti G, Monti E, Magri V, Cai T, Cleves A, Trinchieri A, Montanari E (December 2017). "The association between prostatitis and prostate cancer. Systematic review and meta-analysis". Arch Ital Urol Androl. 89 (4): 259–265. doi:10.4081/aiua.2017.4.259. PMID 29473374.
  26. ↑ Sutcliffe S, Giovannucci E, Alderete JF, Chang TH, Gaydos CA, Zenilman JM, De Marzo AM, Willett WC, Platz EA (May 2006). "Plasma antibodies against Trichomonas vaginalis and subsequent risk of prostate cancer". Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15 (5): 939–45. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0781. PMID 16702374.
  27. ↑ Zafar MB, Terris MK (July 2001). "Prostate cancer detection in veterans with a history of Agent Orange exposure". J. Urol. 166 (1): 100–3. PMID 11435832.
  28. ↑ Multigner L, Ndong JR, Giusti A, Romana M, Delacroix-Maillard H, Cordier S, Jégou B, Thome JP, Blanchet P (July 2010). "Chlordecone exposure and risk of prostate cancer". J. Clin. Oncol. 28 (21): 3457–62. doi:10.1200/JCO.2009.27.2153. PMID 20566993.
  29. ↑ Lobaccaro JM, Trousson A (March 2014). "Environmental estrogen exposure during fetal life: a time bomb for prostate cancer". Endocrinology. 155 (3): 656–8. doi:10.1210/en.2014-1057. PMID 24564415.
  30. ↑ Huang TB, Yan Y, Guo ZF, Zhang XL, Liu H, Geng J, Yao XD, Zheng JH (September 2014). "Aspirin use and the risk of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of 24 epidemiologic studies". Int Urol Nephrol. 46 (9): 1715–28. doi:10.1007/s11255-014-0703-4. PMID 24687637.
  31. ↑ Smith K, Byrne, Castaño JM, Chirlaque MD, Lilja H, Agudo A, Ardanaz E, Rodríguez-Barranco M, Boeing H, Kaaks R, Khaw KT, Larrañaga N, Navarro C, Olsen A, Overvad K, Perez-Cornago A, Rohrmann S, Sánchez MJ, Tjønneland A, Tsilidis KK, Johansson M, Riboli E, Key TJ, Travis RC (April 2017). "Vasectomy and Prostate Cancer Risk in the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)". J. Clin. Oncol. 35 (12): 1297–1303. doi:10.1200/JCO.2016.70.0062. PMC 5455458. PMID 28375714.
  32. ↑ Siddiqui MM, Wilson KM, Epstein MM, Rider JR, Martin NE, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci EL, Mucci LA (September 2014). "Vasectomy and risk of aggressive prostate cancer: a 24-year follow-up study". J. Clin. Oncol. 32 (27): 3033–8. doi:10.1200/JCO.2013.54.8446. PMC 4162499. PMID 25002716.
  33. ↑ Bhindi B, Wallis C, Nayan M, Farrell AM, Trost LW, Hamilton RJ, Kulkarni GS, Finelli A, Fleshner NE, Boorjian SA, Karnes RJ (September 2017). "The Association Between Vasectomy and Prostate Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Intern Med. 177 (9): 1273–1286. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.2791. PMC 5710573. PMID 28715534. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  34. ↑ Luscombe CJ, Fryer AA, French ME, Liu S, Saxby MF, Jones PW, Strange RC (August 2001). "Exposure to ultraviolet radiation: association with susceptibility and age at presentation with prostate cancer". Lancet. 358 (9282): 641–2. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05788-9. PMID 11530156.
  35. ↑ Tuohimaa P, Pukkala E, Scélo G, Olsen JH, Brewster DH, Hemminki K, Tracey E, Weiderpass E, Kliewer EV, Pompe-Kirn V, McBride ML, Martos C, Chia KS, Tonita JM, Jonasson JG, Boffetta P, Brennan P (July 2007). "Does solar exposure, as indicated by the non-melanoma skin cancers, protect from solid cancers: vitamin D as a possible explanation". Eur. J. Cancer. 43 (11): 1701–12. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2007.04.018. PMID 17540555.
  36. ↑ Hoffman KE, Hong TS, Zietman AL, Russell AH (February 2008). "External beam radiation treatment for rectal cancer is associated with a decrease in subsequent prostate cancer diagnosis". Cancer. 112 (4): 943–9. doi:10.1002/cncr.23241. PMID 18098220.

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