Bronchiectasis differential diagnosis: Difference between revisions
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Latest revision as of 20:43, 29 July 2020
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Hamid Qazi, MD, BSc [2], Saarah T. Alkhairy, M.D.
Overview
Bronchiectasis must be differentiated from other diseases that cause dyspnea and cough, such as COPD, asthma, pneumonia, tuberculosis, chronic sinusitis, lung cancer, postnasal drip and inhaled foreign body.
Bronchiectasis Differential Diagnosis
The following table lists the most common differential diagnoses of bronchiectasis based on chronic cough:[1][2]
Organ system | Diseases | Clinical manifestations | Diagnosis | Other features | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Symptoms | Physical exam | ||||||||||||||
Onset | Duration | Productive cough | Hemoptysis | Weight lost | Fever | Dyspnea | Ascultation | Lab findings | Imaging | PFT | Gold standard | ||||
Respiratory | Upper airway diseases | Laryngopharyngeal reflux[3][4] | Chronic |
|
+ | − | − | − | + |
|
|
|
| ||
Rhinosinusitis[5][6] | Acute, subacute, chronic, recurrent | + | − | − | + | + |
|
|
|
|
| ||||
Organ system | Diseases | Clinical manifestations | Diagnosis | Other features | |||||||||||
Symptoms | Physical exam | ||||||||||||||
Onset | Duration | Productive cough | Hemoptysis | Weight lost | Fever | Dyspnea | Ascultation | Lab findings | Imaging | PFT | Gold standard | ||||
Respiratory | Lower airway | Asthma[7] | Chronic |
|
+ Clear mucoid or yellow sputum | − | − | − | + |
|
|
|
|
| |
Chronic Bronchitis[8][9] | Chronic |
|
+ Clear sputum | − | − | + | + |
|
|
|
| ||||
Non−asthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis[10][11] | Chronic |
|
+ Eosinophilic sputum | − | − | − | + |
|
|
|
| ||||
Bronchiectasis[12] | Chronic |
|
+ Mucopurulent sputum | + | − | − | + |
|
|
|
| ||||
Emphysema [13] | Chronic |
|
+ Mucoid or purulent sputum | − | − | + | + |
|
|
|
|
| |||
Organ system | Diseases | Clinical manifestations | Diagnosis | Other features | |||||||||||
Symptoms | Physical exam | ||||||||||||||
Onset | Duration | Productive cough | Hemoptysis | Weight lost | Fever | Dyspnea | Ascultation | Lab findings | Imaging | PFT | Gold standard | ||||
Respiratory | Parenchyma | Pneumoconioses[14][15] | Acute, Chronic |
|
− | − | + | + | + |
|
|
||||
Lung cancer[16][17] | Chronic |
|
+ | + | + | +/− | + | The following investigations may be helpful: |
|
|
| ||||
Interstitial lung disease[18][19] | Chronic |
|
− | + | + | − | + |
|
The following investigations may be helpful: |
|
|
| |||
Tuberculosis (TB)[20][21] | Chronic |
|
+ | + | + | + | + |
|
|
|
|
| |||
Cystic fibrosis (CF)[22][23] | Chronic |
|
+ | − | + | +/− | + |
|
|
| |||||
Organ system | Diseases | Clinical manifestations | Diagnosis | Other features | |||||||||||
Symptoms | Physical exam | ||||||||||||||
Onset | Duration | Productive cough | Hemoptysis | Weight lost | Fever | Dyspnea | Ascultation | Lab findings | Imaging | PFT | Gold standard | ||||
[[[Heart|Cardiac]] | Mitral Stenosis[24][25] | Chronic |
|
+ Pink frothy | + | − | − | + |
|
|
|
|
|||
Pulmonary hypertension[26][27] | Chronic |
|
− | + | + | − | + | The following investigations may be helpful: |
|
|
| ||||
Gastrointestinal | Gastroesophageal reflux[28][29] | Chronic |
|
+ | − | + | − | + |
|
|
|
|
−− | ||
Organ system | Diseases | Clinical manifestations | Diagnosis | Other features | |||||||||||
Symptoms | Physical exam | ||||||||||||||
Onset | Duration | Productive cough | Hemoptysis | Weight lost | Fever | Dyspnea | Ascultation | Lab findings | Imaging | PFT | Gold standard | ||||
Autoimmune | Goodpasture syndrome[30][31] | Chronic |
|
− | + | − | − | + | The following investigations may be helpful:
|
|
|
||||
Wegener's disease (GPA) [32][33] | Chronic |
|
+ | + | + | + | + | The following investigations may be helpful: |
|
|
|
| |||
Sarcoidosis[34][35] | Chronic |
|
− | − | + | + | + |
|
The following investigations may be helpful: |
|
|
||||
Microscopic polyangitis (MPA)[36] | Chronic |
|
+ | + | + | + | + | The following investigations may be helpful:
|
|
|
|
| |||
Churg−Strauss[37][38] | Chronic |
|
+ | + | + | + | + |
|
|
|
|
Cough
The differential diagnosis according to cough for bronchiectasis is shown in the table below:
Organ system | Diseases | Clinical manifestations | Diagnosis | Other features | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Symptoms | Physical exam | ||||||||||||||
Onset | Duration | Productive cough | Hemoptysis | Weight lost | Fever | Dyspnea | Ascultation | Lab findings | Imaging | PFT | Gold standard | ||||
Respiratory | Upper airway diseases | Epiglottitis[39][40] | Abrupt or acute |
|
- | - | - | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| |
Croup[41] | Acute |
|
✔ | - | - | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| |||
Pertussis[42][43] | Acute |
|
✔ Whooping sound | - | ✔ | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| |||
Laryngopharyngeal reflux[3][4] | Chronic |
|
✔ | - | - | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
| ||||
Common Cold[44] | Acute |
|
✔ | - | - | ✔ | - |
|
|
|
|
||||
Seasonal Influenza [45] | Acute |
|
- | - | - | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
| ||||
Rhinosinusitis[5][6] | Acute, subacute, chronic, recurrent | ✔ | - | - | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| ||||
Lower airway | Asthma[7] | Chronic |
|
✔ Clear mucoid or yellow sputum | - | - | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| ||
Acute Bronchitis[46] | Acute |
|
✔ | - | - | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| |||
Chronic Bronchitis[8][9] | Chronic |
|
✔ Clear sputum | - | - | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
| ||||
Non-asthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis[10][11] | Chronic |
|
✔ Eosinophilic sputum | - | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
| |||||
Bronchiectasis[12] | Chronic |
|
✔ Mucopurulent sputum | ✔ | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
| |||||
Emphysema [13] | Chronic |
|
✔ Mucoid or purulent sputum | - | - | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| |||
Foreing body aspiration[47][48][49] | Acute |
|
✔ | ✔ | - | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| |||
Bronchiolitis[50][51] | Acute |
|
✔ | - | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| ||||
Parenchyma | Pneumonia[52][53] | Acute |
|
✔ Mucopurulent sputum | - | - | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
|||
Pneumoconioses[14][15] | Acute, Chronic |
|
- | - | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
||||||
Lung cancer[16][17] | Chronic |
|
✔ | ✔ | ✔ | - | ✔ |
|
|
| |||||
Interstitial lung disease[18][19] | Chronic |
|
- | ✔ | ✔ | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| |||
Tuberculosis (TB)[20][21] | Chronic |
|
✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| |||
Cystic fibrosis (CF)[22][23] | Chronic |
|
✔ | - | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
| ||||||
Cardiac | Cardiogenic pulmonary edema[54][55] | Acute |
|
✔ Pink frothy, liquid | - | ✔ | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| ||
Mitral Stenosis[24][25] | Chronic |
|
✔ Pink frothy | ✔ | - | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
||||
Pulmonary hypertension[26][27] | Chronic |
|
- | ✔ | ✔ | - | ✔ |
|
|
| |||||
Gastrointestinal | Gastroesophageal reflux[28][29] | Chronic |
|
✔ | - | ✔ | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
-- | ||
Autoinmune | Goodpasture syndrome[30][31] | Chronic |
|
- | ✔ | - | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
||||
Wegener's disease (GPA) [32][33] | Chronic |
|
✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
| ||||
Sarcoidosis[34][35] | Chronic |
|
- | - | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
|||||
Microscopic polyangitis (MPA)[36] | Chronic |
|
✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
| |||
Churg-Strauss[37][38] | Chronic |
|
✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
||||
Medication | ACE inhibitors[56][57] | Acute (depend on the medication) |
|
- | - | - | - | ✔ |
|
|
|
|
|
Features that may suggest bronchiectasis in a patient presenting with chronic respiratory symptoms
- Digital clubbing
- Lack of a significant smoking history (if COPD is suspected)
- History of recurrent and/or severe pneumonia or tuberculosis
- Presence of either Aspergillus, atypical/nontuberculous Mycobacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, or Klebsiella pneumoniae in the sputum
References
- ↑ O'Donnell, Anne E. (2008). "Bronchiectasis". Chest. 134 (4): 815–823. doi:10.1378/chest.08-0776. ISSN 0012-3692.
- ↑ Morrissey BM (2007). "Pathogenesis of bronchiectasis". Clin Chest Med. 28 (2): 289–96. PMID 17467548.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 "What is LPR? | American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery".
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Noordzij JP, Khidr A, Desper E, Meek RB, Reibel JF, Levine PA (2002). "Correlation of pH probe-measured laryngopharyngeal reflux with symptoms and signs of reflux laryngitis". Laryngoscope. 112 (12): 2192–5. doi:10.1097/00005537-200212000-00013. PMID 12461340.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Meltzer EO, Hamilos DL (2011). "Rhinosinusitis diagnosis and management for the clinician: a synopsis of recent consensus guidelines". Mayo Clin Proc. 86 (5): 427–43. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0392. PMC 3084646. PMID 21490181.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Ashok Kumar K, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD (2015). "Clinical practice guideline (update): adult sinusitis". Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 152 (2 Suppl): S1–S39. doi:10.1177/0194599815572097. PMID 25832968.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Ukena D, Fishman L, Niebling WB (2008). "Bronchial asthma: diagnosis and long-term treatment in adults". Dtsch Arztebl Int. 105 (21): 385–94. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2008.0385. PMC 2696883. PMID 19626179.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Brusasco V, Martinez F (2014). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Compr Physiol. 4 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1002/cphy.c110037. PMID 24692133.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Qaseem A, Snow V, Shekelle P, Sherif K, Wilt TJ, Weinberger S, Owens DK (2007). "Diagnosis and management of stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians". Ann. Intern. Med. 147 (9): 633–8. PMID 17975186.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Brightling CE (2006). "Chronic cough due to nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 129 (1 Suppl): 116S–121S. doi:10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.116S. PMID 16428700.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Cho J, Choi SM, Lee J, Park YS, Lee SM, Yoo CG; et al. (2018). "Clinical Outcome of Eosinophilic Airway Inflammation in Chronic Airway Diseases Including Nonasthmatic Eosinophilic Bronchitis". Sci Rep. 8 (1): 146. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-18265-2. PMC 5760521. PMID 29317659.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 King PT, Holdsworth SR, Freezer NJ, Villanueva E, Holmes PW (2006). "Characterisation of the onset and presenting clinical features of adult bronchiectasis". Respir Med. 100 (12): 2183–9. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2006.03.012. PMID 16650970.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Rossi A, Butorac-Petanjek B, Chilosi M, Cosío BG, Flezar M, Koulouris N; et al. (2017). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with mild airflow limitation: current knowledge and proposal for future research - a consensus document from six scientific societies". Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 12: 2593–2610. doi:10.2147/COPD.S132236. PMC 5587130. PMID 28919728.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Jp NA, Imanaka M, Suganuma N (2017). "Japanese workplace health management in pneumoconiosis prevention". J Occup Health. 59 (2): 91–103. doi:10.1539/joh.16-0031-RA. PMC 5478517. PMID 27980247.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Weiland DA, Lynch DA, Jensen SP, Newell JD, Miller DE, Crausman RS, Kuhn C, Kern DG (2003). "Thin-section CT findings in flock worker's lung, a work-related interstitial lung disease". Radiology. 227 (1): 222–31. doi:10.1148/radiol.2271011063. PMID 12668748.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D (2011). "Global cancer statistics". CA Cancer J Clin. 61 (2): 69–90. doi:10.3322/caac.20107. PMID 21296855.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Ost DE, Jim Yeung SC, Tanoue LT, Gould MK (2013). "Clinical and organizational factors in the initial evaluation of patients with lung cancer: Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 143 (5 Suppl): e121S–e141S. doi:10.1378/chest.12-2352. PMC 4694609. PMID 23649435.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Lama VN, Martinez FJ (2004). "Resting and exercise physiology in interstitial lung diseases". Clin. Chest Med. 25 (3): 435–53, v. doi:10.1016/j.ccm.2004.05.005. PMID 15331185.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Chetta A, Marangio E, Olivieri D (2004). "Pulmonary function testing in interstitial lung diseases". Respiration. 71 (3): 209–13. doi:10.1159/000077416. PMID 15133338.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Perlman DC, el-Sadr WM, Nelson ET, Matts JP, Telzak EE, Salomon N, Chirgwin K, Hafner R (1997). "Variation of chest radiographic patterns in pulmonary tuberculosis by degree of human immunodeficiency virus-related immunosuppression. The Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA). The AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG)". Clin. Infect. Dis. 25 (2): 242–6. PMID 9332519.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Barnes PF, Verdegem TD, Vachon LA, Leedom JM, Overturf GD (1988). "Chest roentgenogram in pulmonary tuberculosis. New data on an old test". Chest. 94 (2): 316–20. PMID 2456183.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Farrell PM, Rosenstein BJ, White TB, Accurso FJ, Castellani C, Cutting GR, Durie PR, Legrys VA, Massie J, Parad RB, Rock MJ, Campbell PW (2008). "Guidelines for diagnosis of cystic fibrosis in newborns through older adults: Cystic Fibrosis Foundation consensus report". J. Pediatr. 153 (2): S4–S14. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.05.005. PMC 2810958. PMID 18639722.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Kerem E, Reisman J, Corey M, Canny GJ, Levison H (1992). "Prediction of mortality in patients with cystic fibrosis". N. Engl. J. Med. 326 (18): 1187–91. doi:10.1056/NEJM199204303261804. PMID 1285737.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 MUNROE DS, RALLY CR (1963). "The diagnosis of mitral stenosis". Can Med Assoc J. 88: 611–22. PMC 1921207. PMID 13936649.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 Chandrashekhar Y, Westaby S, Narula J (2009). "Mitral stenosis". Lancet. 374 (9697): 1271–83. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60994-6. PMID 19747723.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Brown LM, Chen H, Halpern S, Taichman D, McGoon MD, Farber HW, Frost AE, Liou TG, Turner M, Feldkircher K, Miller DP, Elliott CG (2011). "Delay in recognition of pulmonary arterial hypertension: factors identified from the REVEAL Registry". Chest. 140 (1): 19–26. doi:10.1378/chest.10-1166. PMC 3198486. PMID 21393391.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Sun XG, Hansen JE, Oudiz RJ, Wasserman K (2003). "Pulmonary function in primary pulmonary hypertension". J Am Coll Cardiol. 41 (6): 1028–35. PMID 12651053.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Kahrilas PJ, Hughes N, Howden CW (2011). "Response of unexplained chest pain to proton pump inhibitor treatment in patients with and without objective evidence of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease". Gut. 60 (11): 1473–8. doi:10.1136/gut.2011.241307. PMID 21508423.
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 Badillo R, Francis D (2014). "Diagnosis and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease". World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther. 5 (3): 105–12. doi:10.4292/wjgpt.v5.i3.105. PMC 4133436. PMID 25133039.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Boyce NW, Holdsworth SR (1986). "Pulmonary manifestations of the clinical syndrome of acute glomerulonephritis and lung hemorrhage". Am. J. Kidney Dis. 8 (1): 31–6. PMID 3728460.
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Foster MH (2017). "Basement membranes and autoimmune diseases". Matrix Biol. 57-58: 149–168. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2016.07.008. PMC 5290253. PMID 27496347.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 Hoffman GS, Kerr GS, Leavitt RY, Hallahan CW, Lebovics RS, Travis WD, Rottem M, Fauci AS (1992). "Wegener granulomatosis: an analysis of 158 patients". Ann. Intern. Med. 116 (6): 488–98. PMID 1739240.
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Falk RJ, Gross WL, Guillevin L, Hoffman GS, Jayne DR, Jennette JC, Kallenberg CG, Luqmani R, Mahr AD, Matteson EL, Merkel PA, Specks U, Watts RA (2011). "Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener's): an alternative name for Wegener's granulomatosis". Arthritis Rheum. 63 (4): 863–4. doi:10.1002/art.30286. PMID 21374588.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Carmona EM, Kalra S, Ryu JH (2016). "Pulmonary Sarcoidosis: Diagnosis and Treatment". Mayo Clin. Proc. 91 (7): 946–54. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.03.004. PMID 27378039.
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 Yanardağ H, Pamuk GE, Karayel T, Demirci S (2002). "Bone marrow involvement in sarcoidosis: an analysis of 50 bone marrow samples". Haematologia (Budap). 32 (4): 419–25. PMID 12803116.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Jennette, J. Charles; Falk, Ronald J. (1997). "Small-Vessel Vasculitis". New England Journal of Medicine. 337 (21): 1512–1523. doi:10.1056/NEJM199711203372106. ISSN 0028-4793.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 Vaglio A, Buzio C, Zwerina J (2013). "Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Churg-Strauss): state of the art". Allergy. 68 (3): 261–73. doi:10.1111/all.12088. PMID 23330816.
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 Lanham JG, Elkon KB, Pusey CD, Hughes GR (1984). "Systemic vasculitis with asthma and eosinophilia: a clinical approach to the Churg-Strauss syndrome". Medicine (Baltimore). 63 (2): 65–81. PMID 6366453.
- ↑ Stroud RH, Friedman NR (2001). "An update on inflammatory disorders of the pediatric airway: epiglottitis, croup, and tracheitis". Am J Otolaryngol. 22 (4): 268–75. doi:10.1053/ajot.2001.24825. PMID 11464324.
- ↑ Solomon P, Weisbrod M, Irish JC, Gullane PJ (1998). "Adult epiglottitis: the Toronto Hospital experience". J Otolaryngol. 27 (6): 332–6. PMID 9857318.
- ↑ Cherry, James D. (2008). "Croup". New England Journal of Medicine. 358 (4): 384–391. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp072022. ISSN 0028-4793.
- ↑ Bellamy EA, Johnston ID, Wilson AG (1987). "The chest radiograph in whooping cough". Clin Radiol. 38 (1): 39–43. PMID 3816065.
- ↑ "Pertussis | Whooping Cough | Clinical | Information | CDC".
- ↑ Eccles R (2005). "Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza". Lancet Infect Dis. 5 (11): 718–25. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70270-X. PMID 16253889.
- ↑ Kim EA, Lee KS, Primack SL, Yoon HK, Byun HS, Kim TS, Suh GY, Kwon OJ, Han J (2002). "Viral pneumonias in adults: radiologic and pathologic findings". Radiographics. 22 Spec No: S137–49. doi:10.1148/radiographics.22.suppl_1.g02oc15s137. PMID 12376607.
- ↑ Wenzel RP, Fowler AA (2006). "Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis". N. Engl. J. Med. 355 (20): 2125–30. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp061493. PMID 17108344.
- ↑ Hewlett JC, Rickman OB, Lentz RJ, Prakash UB, Maldonado F (2017). "Foreign body aspiration in adult airways: therapeutic approach". J Thorac Dis. 9 (9): 3398–3409. doi:10.21037/jtd.2017.06.137. PMC 5708401. PMID 29221325.
- ↑ Rafanan AL, Mehta AC (2001). "Adult airway foreign body removal. What's new?". Clin. Chest Med. 22 (2): 319–30. PMID 11444115.
- ↑ Haddadi S, Marzban S, Nemati S, Ranjbar Kiakelayeh S, Parvizi A, Heidarzadeh A (2015). "Tracheobronchial Foreign-Bodies in Children; A 7 Year Retrospective Study". Iran J Otorhinolaryngol. 27 (82): 377–85. PMC 4639691. PMID 26568942.
- ↑ Bordley WC, Viswanathan M, King VJ, Sutton SF, Jackman AM, Sterling L, Lohr KN (2004). "Diagnosis and testing in bronchiolitis: a systematic review". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 158 (2): 119–26. doi:10.1001/archpedi.158.2.119. PMID 14757603.
- ↑ "www.nice.org.uk".
- ↑ Bartlett JG, Dowell SF, Mandell LA, File Jr TM, Musher DM, Fine MJ (2000). "Practice guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Infectious Diseases Society of America". Clin. Infect. Dis. 31 (2): 347–82. doi:10.1086/313954. PMID 10987697.
- ↑ Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, Bartlett JG, Campbell GD, Dean NC, Dowell SF, File TM, Musher DM, Niederman MS, Torres A, Whitney CG (2007). "Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults". Clin. Infect. Dis. 44 Suppl 2: S27–72. doi:10.1086/511159. PMID 17278083.
- ↑ Gheorghiade M, Zannad F, Sopko G, Klein L, Piña IL, Konstam MA, Massie BM, Roland E, Targum S, Collins SP, Filippatos G, Tavazzi L (2005). "Acute heart failure syndromes: current state and framework for future research". Circulation. 112 (25): 3958–68. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.590091. PMID 16365214.
- ↑ Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B, Butler J, Casey DE, Drazner MH, Fonarow GC, Geraci SA, Horwich T, Januzzi JL, Johnson MR, Kasper EK, Levy WC, Masoudi FA, McBride PE, McMurray JJ, Mitchell JE, Peterson PN, Riegel B, Sam F, Stevenson LW, Tang WH, Tsai EJ, Wilkoff BL (2013). "2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines". Circulation. 128 (16): e240–327. doi:10.1161/CIR.0b013e31829e8776. PMID 23741058.
- ↑ Israili ZH, Hall WD (1992). "Cough and angioneurotic edema associated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy. A review of the literature and pathophysiology". Ann. Intern. Med. 117 (3): 234–42. PMID 1616218.
- ↑ Wood R (1995). "Bronchospasm and cough as adverse reactions to the ACE inhibitors captopril, enalapril and lisinopril. A controlled retrospective cohort study". Br J Clin Pharmacol. 39 (3): 265–70. PMC 1365002. PMID 7619667.