Metabolic acidosis differential diagnosis: Difference between revisions

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__NOTOC__
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{{Metabolic acidosis}}
[[Image:Home_logo1.png|right|250px|link=https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Metabolic_acidosis]]
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{SSH}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{SSH}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
Metabolic acidosis is occured in different situations such as poisoning,  
Metabolic acidosis is occured in different situations such as [[Poison|poisoning]], [[ketoacidosis]], [[Kidney|renal]], [[Gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal]], [[Heart|cardiac]], [[Endocrine system|endocrine]], and systemic diseases. 


==Metabolic Acidosis Differential Diagnosis==
==Metabolic Acidosis Differential Diagnosis==
'''Differential diagnosis of metabolic acidosis is as follow:'''<ref name="pmid17936961">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lim S |title=Metabolic acidosis |journal=Acta Med Indones |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=145–50 |date=2007 |pmid=17936961 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="MorrisLow2008">{{cite journal|last1=Morris|first1=C. G.|last2=Low|first2=J.|title=Metabolic acidosis in the critically ill: Part 1. Classification and pathophysiology|journal=Anaesthesia|volume=63|issue=3|year=2008|pages=294–301|issn=00032409|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2044.2007.05370.x}}</ref><ref name="pmid18336491">{{cite journal |vauthors=Morris CG, Low J |title=Metabolic acidosis in the critically ill: part 2. Causes and treatment |journal=Anaesthesia |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=396–411 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18336491 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2044.2007.05371.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="Casaletto2005">{{cite journal|last1=Casaletto|first1=Jennifer J.|title=Differential Diagnosis of Metabolic Acidosis|journal=Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America|volume=23|issue=3|year=2005|pages=771–787|issn=07338627|doi=10.1016/j.emc.2005.03.007}}</ref>
'''Differential diagnosis of metabolic acidosis is as follow:'''<ref name="pmid17936961">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lim S |title=Metabolic acidosis |journal=Acta Med Indones |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=145–50 |date=2007 |pmid=17936961 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="MorrisLow2008">{{cite journal|last1=Morris|first1=C. G.|last2=Low|first2=J.|title=Metabolic acidosis in the critically ill: Part 1. Classification and pathophysiology|journal=Anaesthesia|volume=63|issue=3|year=2008|pages=294–301|issn=00032409|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2044.2007.05370.x}}</ref><ref name="pmid18336491">{{cite journal |vauthors=Morris CG, Low J |title=Metabolic acidosis in the critically ill: part 2. Causes and treatment |journal=Anaesthesia |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=396–411 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18336491 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2044.2007.05371.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="Casaletto2005">{{cite journal|last1=Casaletto|first1=Jennifer J.|title=Differential Diagnosis of Metabolic Acidosis|journal=Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America|volume=23|issue=3|year=2005|pages=771–787|issn=07338627|doi=10.1016/j.emc.2005.03.007}}</ref>


'''To review differential diagnosis of  high anion gap metabolic acidosis, click here.'''
'''To review differential diagnosis of  high anion gap metabolic acidosis, click [[High anion gap metabolic acidosis differential diagnosis|here]].'''


'''To review differential diagnosis of  high osmolar gap metabolic acidosis, click here.'''
'''To review differential diagnosis of  high osmolar gap metabolic acidosis, click [[High osmolar gap metabolic acidosis differential diagnosis|here]].'''


'''To review differential diagnosis of  metabolic acidosis and lactic acidosis, click here.'''
'''To review differential diagnosis of  metabolic acidosis and lactic acidosis, click [[Metabolic acidosis and lactic acidosis differential diagnosis|here]].'''


{|  
{|  
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! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |BP
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |BP
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Dehydration
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Dehydration
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |LOC
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Level of consciousness
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |paCO<sub>2</sub>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |paCO<sub>2</sub>
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|-
|-
! rowspan="10" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Toxin/Medication<ref name="PhamXu2015">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Amy Quynh Trang|last2=Xu|first2=Li Hao Richie|last3=Moe|first3=Orson W.|title=Drug-Induced Metabolic Acidosis|journal=F1000Research|year=2015|issn=2046-1402|doi=10.12688/f1000research.7006.1}}</ref>
! rowspan="10" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Toxin/Medication<ref name="PhamXu2015">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Amy Quynh Trang|last2=Xu|first2=Li Hao Richie|last3=Moe|first3=Orson W.|title=Drug-Induced Metabolic Acidosis|journal=F1000Research|year=2015|issn=2046-1402|doi=10.12688/f1000research.7006.1}}</ref>
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Alcohol<ref name="pmid15902789">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zehtabchi S, Sinert R, Baron BJ, Paladino L, Yadav K |title=Does ethanol explain the acidosis commonly seen in ethanol-intoxicated patients? |journal=Clin Toxicol (Phila) |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=161–6 |date=2005 |pmid=15902789 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="RobertsYates2015">{{cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=Darren M.|last2=Yates|first2=Christopher|last3=Megarbane|first3=Bruno|last4=Winchester|first4=James F.|last5=Maclaren|first5=Robert|last6=Gosselin|first6=Sophie|last7=Nolin|first7=Thomas D.|last8=Lavergne|first8=Valéry|last9=Hoffman|first9=Robert S.|last10=Ghannoum|first10=Marc|title=Recommendations for the Role of Extracorporeal Treatments in the Management of Acute Methanol Poisoning|journal=Critical Care Medicine|volume=43|issue=2|year=2015|pages=461–472|issn=0090-3493|doi=10.1097/CCM.0000000000000708}}</ref>
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Alcohol poisoning]]<ref name="pmid15902789">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zehtabchi S, Sinert R, Baron BJ, Paladino L, Yadav K |title=Does ethanol explain the acidosis commonly seen in ethanol-intoxicated patients? |journal=Clin Toxicol (Phila) |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=161–6 |date=2005 |pmid=15902789 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="RobertsYates2015">{{cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=Darren M.|last2=Yates|first2=Christopher|last3=Megarbane|first3=Bruno|last4=Winchester|first4=James F.|last5=Maclaren|first5=Robert|last6=Gosselin|first6=Sophie|last7=Nolin|first7=Thomas D.|last8=Lavergne|first8=Valéry|last9=Hoffman|first9=Robert S.|last10=Ghannoum|first10=Marc|title=Recommendations for the Role of Extracorporeal Treatments in the Management of Acute Methanol Poisoning|journal=Critical Care Medicine|volume=43|issue=2|year=2015|pages=461–472|issn=0090-3493|doi=10.1097/CCM.0000000000000708}}</ref>
! align="left" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |
! align="left" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |
* Methanol
* [[Methanol#Toxicity|Methanol poisoning]]
* Ethylene glycol
* [[Ethylene glycol poisoning]]
* Propylene glycol
* [[Propylene glycol|Propylene glycol poisoning]]
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical
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* Positive urine [[oxalate]] crystals in [[Ethylene glycol|ethylene glycol poisoning]]
* Positive urine [[oxalate]] crystals in [[Ethylene glycol|ethylene glycol poisoning]]
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|-
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* Isopropyl alcohol<ref>Ashurst JV, Nappe TM. Toxicity, Isopropanol. [Updated 2018 Mar 8]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2018 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493181/</ref>
* [[Isopropyl alcohol|Isopropyl alcohol poisoning]]<ref>Ashurst JV, Nappe TM. Toxicity, Isopropanol. [Updated 2018 Mar 8]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2018 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493181/</ref>
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* Not applicable
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! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Toluene<ref name="Camara-LemarroyRodríguez-Gutiérrez2015">{{cite journal|last1=Camara-Lemarroy|first1=Carlos Rodrigo|last2=Rodríguez-Gutiérrez|first2=René|last3=Monreal-Robles|first3=Roberto|last4=González-González|first4=José Gerardo|title=Acute toluene intoxication–clinical presentation, management and prognosis: a prospective observational study|journal=BMC Emergency Medicine|volume=15|issue=1|year=2015|issn=1471-227X|doi=10.1186/s12873-015-0039-0}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Toluene (toxicology)|Toluene toxicity]]<ref name="Camara-LemarroyRodríguez-Gutiérrez2015">{{cite journal|last1=Camara-Lemarroy|first1=Carlos Rodrigo|last2=Rodríguez-Gutiérrez|first2=René|last3=Monreal-Robles|first3=Roberto|last4=González-González|first4=José Gerardo|title=Acute toluene intoxication–clinical presentation, management and prognosis: a prospective observational study|journal=BMC Emergency Medicine|volume=15|issue=1|year=2015|issn=1471-227X|doi=10.1186/s12873-015-0039-0}}</ref>
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* Most widely abused inhaled drugs
* Most widely abused inhaled drugs
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|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Salicylates<ref name="WrightSop2015">{{cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=Dallas|last2=Sop|first2=Jessica|title=Normal anion gap salicylate poisoning|journal=The American Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=33|issue=11|year=2015|pages=1714.e3–1714.e4|issn=07356757|doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2015.03.042}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Salicylate intoxication|Salicylates overdose]]<ref name="WrightSop2015">{{cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=Dallas|last2=Sop|first2=Jessica|title=Normal anion gap salicylate poisoning|journal=The American Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=33|issue=11|year=2015|pages=1714.e3–1714.e4|issn=07356757|doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2015.03.042}}</ref>
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* Paradoxical [[alkalosis]]
* Paradoxical [[alkalosis]]
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|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Metformin<ref name="GalieroConsani2018">{{cite journal|last1=Galiero|first1=Francesca|last2=Consani|first2=Giovanni|last3=Biancofiore|first3=Gianni|last4=Ruschi|first4=Stefano|last5=Forfori|first5=Francesco|title=Metformin intoxication: Vasopressin's key role in the management of severe lactic acidosis|journal=The American Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=36|issue=2|year=2018|pages=341.e5–341.e6|issn=07356757|doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2017.10.057}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Metformin]]<ref name="GalieroConsani2018">{{cite journal|last1=Galiero|first1=Francesca|last2=Consani|first2=Giovanni|last3=Biancofiore|first3=Gianni|last4=Ruschi|first4=Stefano|last5=Forfori|first5=Francesco|title=Metformin intoxication: Vasopressin's key role in the management of severe lactic acidosis|journal=The American Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=36|issue=2|year=2018|pages=341.e5–341.e6|issn=07356757|doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2017.10.057}}</ref>
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical
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* Increased risk in patients with [[impaired renal function]]
* [[Hepatic failure|Liver failure]]
* [[Hepatic failure|Liver failure]]
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|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Isoniazid<ref name="pmid2304098">{{cite journal |vauthors=Watkins RC, Hambrick EL, Benjamin G, Chavda SN |title=Isoniazid toxicity presenting as seizures and metabolic acidosis |journal=J Natl Med Assoc |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=57, 62, 64 |date=January 1990 |pmid=2304098 |pmc=2625939 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Isoniazid]]<ref name="pmid2304098">{{cite journal |vauthors=Watkins RC, Hambrick EL, Benjamin G, Chavda SN |title=Isoniazid toxicity presenting as seizures and metabolic acidosis |journal=J Natl Med Assoc |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=57, 62, 64 |date=January 1990 |pmid=2304098 |pmc=2625939 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
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* [[Seizure]]
* [[Seizure]]
* [[Ataxia]]
* [[Ataxia]]
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! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Acetazolamide<ref name="TeppemaBalanos2007">{{cite journal|last1=Teppema|first1=Luc J.|last2=Balanos|first2=George M.|last3=Steinback|first3=Craig D.|last4=Brown|first4=Allison D.|last5=Foster|first5=Glen E.|last6=Duff|first6=Henry J.|last7=Leigh|first7=Richard|last8=Poulin|first8=Marc J.|title=Effects of Acetazolamide on Ventilatory, Cerebrovascular, and Pulmonary Vascular Responses to Hypoxia|journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine|volume=175|issue=3|year=2007|pages=277–281|issn=1073-449X|doi=10.1164/rccm.200608-1199OC}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Acetazolamide]]<ref name="TeppemaBalanos2007">{{cite journal|last1=Teppema|first1=Luc J.|last2=Balanos|first2=George M.|last3=Steinback|first3=Craig D.|last4=Brown|first4=Allison D.|last5=Foster|first5=Glen E.|last6=Duff|first6=Henry J.|last7=Leigh|first7=Richard|last8=Poulin|first8=Marc J.|title=Effects of Acetazolamide on Ventilatory, Cerebrovascular, and Pulmonary Vascular Responses to Hypoxia|journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine|volume=175|issue=3|year=2007|pages=277–281|issn=1073-449X|doi=10.1164/rccm.200608-1199OC}}</ref>
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* Not applicable
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! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Amphotericin B<ref name="BatesSu2001">{{cite journal|last1=Bates|first1=D. W.|last2=Su|first2=L.|last3=Yu|first3=D. T.|last4=Chertow|first4=G. M.|last5=Seger|first5=D. L.|last6=Gomes|first6=D. R. J.|last7=Dasbach|first7=E. J.|last8=Platt|first8=R.|title=Mortality and Costs of Acute Renal Failure Associated with Amphotericin B Therapy|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=32|issue=5|year=2001|pages=686–693|issn=1058-4838|doi=10.1086/319211}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Amphotericin B]]<ref name="BatesSu2001">{{cite journal|last1=Bates|first1=D. W.|last2=Su|first2=L.|last3=Yu|first3=D. T.|last4=Chertow|first4=G. M.|last5=Seger|first5=D. L.|last6=Gomes|first6=D. R. J.|last7=Dasbach|first7=E. J.|last8=Platt|first8=R.|title=Mortality and Costs of Acute Renal Failure Associated with Amphotericin B Therapy|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=32|issue=5|year=2001|pages=686–693|issn=1058-4838|doi=10.1086/319211}}</ref>
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* Not applicable
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! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |CO<ref name="pmid10333448">{{cite journal |vauthors=Piantadosi CA |title=Diagnosis and treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning |journal=Respir Care Clin N Am |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=183–202 |date=June 1999 |pmid=10333448 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Carbon monoxide poisoning]]<ref name="pmid10333448">{{cite journal |vauthors=Piantadosi CA |title=Diagnosis and treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning |journal=Respir Care Clin N Am |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=183–202 |date=June 1999 |pmid=10333448 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
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* Not applicable
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! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Cyanide<ref name="pmid12352039">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baud FJ, Borron SW, Mégarbane B, Trout H, Lapostolle F, Vicaut E, Debray M, Bismuth C |title=Value of lactic acidosis in the assessment of the severity of acute cyanide poisoning |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=30 |issue=9 |pages=2044–50 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12352039 |doi=10.1097/01.CCM.0000026325.65944.7D |url=}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Cyanide poisoning]]<ref name="pmid12352039">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baud FJ, Borron SW, Mégarbane B, Trout H, Lapostolle F, Vicaut E, Debray M, Bismuth C |title=Value of lactic acidosis in the assessment of the severity of acute cyanide poisoning |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=30 |issue=9 |pages=2044–50 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12352039 |doi=10.1097/01.CCM.0000026325.65944.7D |url=}}</ref>
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Blood [[cyanide]] concentration
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Blood [[cyanide]] concentration
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* Not applicable
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! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Category
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Category
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! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |BP
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |BP
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Dehydration
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Dehydration
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |LOC
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Level of consciousness
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |paCO<sub>2</sub>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |paCO<sub>2</sub>
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|-
|-
| rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Ketoacidosis
| rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Ketoacidosis
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Diabetic<ref name="WolfsdorfAllgrove2014">{{cite journal|last1=Wolfsdorf|first1=Joseph I|last2=Allgrove|first2=Jeremy|last3=Craig|first3=Maria E|last4=Edge|first4=Julie|last5=Glaser|first5=Nicole|last6=Jain|first6=Vandana|last7=Lee|first7=Warren WR|last8=Mungai|first8=Lucy NW|last9=Rosenbloom|first9=Arlan L|last10=Sperling|first10=Mark A|last11=Hanas|first11=Ragnar|title=Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state|journal=Pediatric Diabetes|volume=15|issue=S20|year=2014|pages=154–179|issn=1399543X|doi=10.1111/pedi.12165}}</ref>  
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Diabetic ketoacidosis]]<ref name="WolfsdorfAllgrove2014">{{cite journal|last1=Wolfsdorf|first1=Joseph I|last2=Allgrove|first2=Jeremy|last3=Craig|first3=Maria E|last4=Edge|first4=Julie|last5=Glaser|first5=Nicole|last6=Jain|first6=Vandana|last7=Lee|first7=Warren WR|last8=Mungai|first8=Lucy NW|last9=Rosenbloom|first9=Arlan L|last10=Sperling|first10=Mark A|last11=Hanas|first11=Ragnar|title=Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state|journal=Pediatric Diabetes|volume=15|issue=S20|year=2014|pages=154–179|issn=1399543X|doi=10.1111/pedi.12165}}</ref>  
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↑↑
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↑↑
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Nl
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Nl
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↓
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↑
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↓
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↓
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↑
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↑
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical + [[hyperglycemia]] + [[ketosis]]
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical + [[hyperglycemia]] + [[ketosis]]
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Labs might show elevated K<sup>+</sup> even in K<sup>+</sup> depletion due to extravasation of [[intracellular]] K+ in exchanged with extracellular H<sup>+</sup>
|-
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Starvation<ref name="pmid27752032">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mostert M, Bonavia A |title=Starvation Ketoacidosis as a Cause of Unexplained Metabolic Acidosis in the Perioperative Period |journal=Am J Case Rep |volume=17 |issue= |pages=755–758 |date=October 2016 |pmid=27752032 |pmc=5070574 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Starvation<ref name="pmid27752032">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mostert M, Bonavia A |title=Starvation Ketoacidosis as a Cause of Unexplained Metabolic Acidosis in the Perioperative Period |journal=Am J Case Rep |volume=17 |issue= |pages=755–758 |date=October 2016 |pmid=27752032 |pmc=5070574 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* [[Refeeding syndrome]] may occur during or after treatment 
|-
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Alcoholic (Ethanol)<ref name="pmid28613672">{{cite journal |vauthors=Howard RD, Bokhari SRA |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |date= |pmid=28613672 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Alcoholic ketoacidosis ([[Ethanol]])<ref name="pmid28613672">{{cite journal |vauthors=Howard RD, Bokhari SRA |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |date= |pmid=28613672 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical + [[ketosis]]
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation + [[ketosis]]
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Chronic [[alcohol abuse]]
* Chronic [[alcohol abuse]]
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|-
|-
| rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Systemic
| rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Systemic
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Sepsis<ref name="pmid28149822">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ganesh K, Sharma RN, Varghese J, Pillai MG |title=A profile of metabolic acidosis in patients with sepsis in an Intensive Care Unit setting |journal=Int J Crit Illn Inj Sci |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=178–181 |date=2016 |pmid=28149822 |pmc=5225760 |doi=10.4103/2229-5151.195417 |url=}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Sepsis]]<ref name="pmid28149822">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ganesh K, Sharma RN, Varghese J, Pillai MG |title=A profile of metabolic acidosis in patients with sepsis in an Intensive Care Unit setting |journal=Int J Crit Illn Inj Sci |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=178–181 |date=2016 |pmid=28149822 |pmc=5225760 |doi=10.4103/2229-5151.195417 |url=}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Not applicable
|-
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Ischemia<ref name="KimmounNovy2015">{{cite journal|last1=Kimmoun|first1=Antoine|last2=Novy|first2=Emmanuel|last3=Auchet|first3=Thomas|last4=Ducrocq|first4=Nicolas|last5=Levy|first5=Bruno|title=Hemodynamic consequences of severe lactic acidosis in shock states: from bench to bedside|journal=Critical Care|volume=19|issue=1|year=2015|issn=1364-8535|doi=10.1186/s13054-015-0896-7}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Ischemia]]<ref name="KimmounNovy2015">{{cite journal|last1=Kimmoun|first1=Antoine|last2=Novy|first2=Emmanuel|last3=Auchet|first3=Thomas|last4=Ducrocq|first4=Nicolas|last5=Levy|first5=Bruno|title=Hemodynamic consequences of severe lactic acidosis in shock states: from bench to bedside|journal=Critical Care|volume=19|issue=1|year=2015|issn=1364-8535|doi=10.1186/s13054-015-0896-7}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Not applicable
|-
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Lactic acidosis<ref name="KrautIngelfinger2014">{{cite journal|last1=Kraut|first1=Jeffrey A.|last2=Ingelfinger|first2=Julie R.|last3=Madias|first3=Nicolaos E.|title=Lactic Acidosis|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=24|year=2014|pages=2309–2319|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMra1309483}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Lactic acidosis]]<ref name="KrautIngelfinger2014">{{cite journal|last1=Kraut|first1=Jeffrey A.|last2=Ingelfinger|first2=Julie R.|last3=Madias|first3=Nicolaos E.|title=Lactic Acidosis|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=24|year=2014|pages=2309–2319|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMra1309483}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Not applicable
|-
|-
| rowspan="5" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Renal
| rowspan="5" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Renal
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Uremia<ref name="BrownMelamed2018">{{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=Denver|last2=Melamed|first2=Michal L.|title=New Frontiers in Treating Uremic Metabolic Acidosis|journal=Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology|volume=13|issue=1|year=2018|pages=4–5|issn=1555-9041|doi=10.2215/CJN.11771017}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Uremia]]<ref name="BrownMelamed2018">{{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=Denver|last2=Melamed|first2=Michal L.|title=New Frontiers in Treating Uremic Metabolic Acidosis|journal=Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology|volume=13|issue=1|year=2018|pages=4–5|issn=1555-9041|doi=10.2215/CJN.11771017}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* May lead to [[pericarditis]]
|-
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Renal failure<ref name="KrautMadias2016">{{cite journal|last1=Kraut|first1=Jeffrey A.|last2=Madias|first2=Nicolaos E.|title=Metabolic Acidosis of CKD: An Update|journal=American Journal of Kidney Diseases|volume=67|issue=2|year=2016|pages=307–317|issn=02726386|doi=10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.08.028}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Renal failure]]<ref name="KrautMadias2016">{{cite journal|last1=Kraut|first1=Jeffrey A.|last2=Madias|first2=Nicolaos E.|title=Metabolic Acidosis of CKD: An Update|journal=American Journal of Kidney Diseases|volume=67|issue=2|year=2016|pages=307–317|issn=02726386|doi=10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.08.028}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |[[Renal function tests|Renal function test]]
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |[[Renal function tests|Renal function test]]
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Not applicable
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Renal tubular acidosis<ref name="Gil-PeñaMejía2014">{{cite journal|last1=Gil-Peña|first1=Helena|last2=Mejía|first2=Natalia|last3=Santos|first3=Fernando|title=Renal Tubular Acidosis|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=164|issue=4|year=2014|pages=691–698.e1|issn=00223476|doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.10.085}}</ref>
! rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Renal tubular acidosis]]<ref name="Gil-PeñaMejía2014">{{cite journal|last1=Gil-Peña|first1=Helena|last2=Mejía|first2=Natalia|last3=Santos|first3=Fernando|title=Renal Tubular Acidosis|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=164|issue=4|year=2014|pages=691–698.e1|issn=00223476|doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.10.085}}</ref>
! align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Type I<ref name="Hemstreet2004">{{cite journal|last1=Hemstreet|first1=Brian A|title=Antimicrobial-Associated Renal Tubular Acidosis|journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy|volume=38|issue=6|year=2004|pages=1031–1038|issn=1060-0280|doi=10.1345/aph.1D573}}</ref>
! align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Type I<ref name="Hemstreet2004">{{cite journal|last1=Hemstreet|first1=Brian A|title=Antimicrobial-Associated Renal Tubular Acidosis|journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy|volume=38|issue=6|year=2004|pages=1031–1038|issn=1060-0280|doi=10.1345/aph.1D573}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation and lab finding
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Associated with [[Autoimmunity|autoimmune diseases]]
* Associated with [[Autoimmunity|autoimmune diseases]]
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Not applicable
|-
|-
! align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Type IV
! align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Type IV
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical and lab finding
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation and lab finding
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* [[Hypoaldosteronism]]
* [[Hypoaldosteronism]]
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! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |BP
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |BP
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Dehydration
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Dehydration
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |LOC
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Level of consciousness
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |paCO<sub>2</sub>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |paCO<sub>2</sub>
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|-
|-
| rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Heart
| rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Heart
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Heart failure<ref name="ParkChoi2015">{{cite journal|last1=Park|first1=Jin Joo|last2=Choi|first2=Dong-Ju|last3=Yoon|first3=Chang-Hwan|last4=Oh|first4=Il-Young|last5=Lee|first5=Ju Hyun|last6=Ahn|first6=Soyeon|last7=Yoo|first7=Byung-Su|last8=Kang|first8=Seok-Min|last9=Kim|first9=Jae-Joong|last10=Baek|first10=Sang-Hong|last11=Cho|first11=Myeong-Chan|last12=Jeon|first12=Eun-Seok|last13=Chae|first13=Shung Chull|last14=Ryu|first14=Kyu-Hyung|last15=Oh|first15=Byung-Hee|title=The prognostic value of arterial blood gas analysis in high-risk acute heart failure patients: an analysis of the Korean Heart Failure (KorHF) registry|journal=European Journal of Heart Failure|volume=17|issue=6|year=2015|pages=601–611|issn=13889842|doi=10.1002/ejhf.276}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Heart failure]]<ref name="ParkChoi2015">{{cite journal|last1=Park|first1=Jin Joo|last2=Choi|first2=Dong-Ju|last3=Yoon|first3=Chang-Hwan|last4=Oh|first4=Il-Young|last5=Lee|first5=Ju Hyun|last6=Ahn|first6=Soyeon|last7=Yoo|first7=Byung-Su|last8=Kang|first8=Seok-Min|last9=Kim|first9=Jae-Joong|last10=Baek|first10=Sang-Hong|last11=Cho|first11=Myeong-Chan|last12=Jeon|first12=Eun-Seok|last13=Chae|first13=Shung Chull|last14=Ryu|first14=Kyu-Hyung|last15=Oh|first15=Byung-Hee|title=The prognostic value of arterial blood gas analysis in high-risk acute heart failure patients: an analysis of the Korean Heart Failure (KorHF) registry|journal=European Journal of Heart Failure|volume=17|issue=6|year=2015|pages=601–611|issn=13889842|doi=10.1002/ejhf.276}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
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| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical + [[echocardiogram]]
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation+ [[echocardiogram]]
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* [[Hypoalbuminemia]]
* [[Hypoalbuminemia]]
* Elevated [[Natriuretic peptides|serum natriuretic peptide]]
* Elevated [[Natriuretic peptides|serum natriuretic peptide]]
|-
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |MI<ref name="MannBajulaiye2014">{{cite journal|last1=Mann|first1=Sarah|last2=Bajulaiye|first2=Akinyemi|last3=Sturgeon|first3=Kathleen|last4=Sabri|first4=Abdelkarim|last5=Muthukumaran|first5=Geetha|last6=Libonati|first6=Joseph R.|title=Effects of acute angiotensin II on ischemia reperfusion injury following myocardial infarction|journal=Journal of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System|volume=16|issue=1|year=2014|pages=13–22|issn=1470-3203|doi=10.1177/1470320314554963}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Myocardial infarction]]<ref name="MannBajulaiye2014">{{cite journal|last1=Mann|first1=Sarah|last2=Bajulaiye|first2=Akinyemi|last3=Sturgeon|first3=Kathleen|last4=Sabri|first4=Abdelkarim|last5=Muthukumaran|first5=Geetha|last6=Libonati|first6=Joseph R.|title=Effects of acute angiotensin II on ischemia reperfusion injury following myocardial infarction|journal=Journal of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System|volume=16|issue=1|year=2014|pages=13–22|issn=1470-3203|doi=10.1177/1470320314554963}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
Line 913: Line 927:
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | −
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical + [[ECG]]
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation + [[ECG]]
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Not applicable
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |GI
! rowspan="3" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |GI
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Diarrhea<ref name="GuerrantVan Gilder2001">{{cite journal|last1=Guerrant|first1=R. L.|last2=Van Gilder|first2=T.|last3=Steiner|first3=T. S.|last4=Thielman|first4=N. M.|last5=Slutsker|first5=L.|last6=Tauxe|first6=R. V.|last7=Hennessy|first7=T.|last8=Griffin|first8=P. M.|last9=DuPont|first9=H.|last10=Bradley Sack|first10=R.|last11=Tarr|first11=P.|last12=Neill|first12=M.|last13=Nachamkin|first13=I.|last14=Reller|first14=L. B.|last15=Osterholm|first15=M. T.|last16=Bennish|first16=M. L.|last17=Pickering|first17=L. K.|title=Practice Guidelines for the Management of Infectious Diarrhea|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=32|issue=3|year=2001|pages=331–351|issn=1058-4838|doi=10.1086/318514}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Diarrhea]]<ref name="GuerrantVan Gilder2001">{{cite journal|last1=Guerrant|first1=R. L.|last2=Van Gilder|first2=T.|last3=Steiner|first3=T. S.|last4=Thielman|first4=N. M.|last5=Slutsker|first5=L.|last6=Tauxe|first6=R. V.|last7=Hennessy|first7=T.|last8=Griffin|first8=P. M.|last9=DuPont|first9=H.|last10=Bradley Sack|first10=R.|last11=Tarr|first11=P.|last12=Neill|first12=M.|last13=Nachamkin|first13=I.|last14=Reller|first14=L. B.|last15=Osterholm|first15=M. T.|last16=Bennish|first16=M. L.|last17=Pickering|first17=L. K.|title=Practice Guidelines for the Management of Infectious Diarrhea|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=32|issue=3|year=2001|pages=331–351|issn=1058-4838|doi=10.1086/318514}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
Line 928: Line 943:
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↓
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↓
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |May be lethargic
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↓
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↓
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↓
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |↓
Line 948: Line 963:
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |[[Stool examination|Stool exam]]
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |[[Stool examination|Stool exam]]
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Not applicable
|-
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Hyperalimentation<ref name="ErlingssonHerard2009">{{cite journal|last1=Erlingsson|first1=Styrbjörn|last2=Herard|first2=Sebastian|last3=Dahlqvist Leinhard|first3=Olof|last4=Lindström|first4=Torbjörb|last5=Länne|first5=Toste|last6=Borga|first6=Magnus|last7=Nystrom|first7=Fredrik H.|title=Men develop more intraabdominal obesity and signs of the metabolic syndrome after hyperalimentation than women|journal=Metabolism|volume=58|issue=7|year=2009|pages=995–1001|issn=00260495|doi=10.1016/j.metabol.2009.02.028}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Hyperalimentation]]<ref name="ErlingssonHerard2009">{{cite journal|last1=Erlingsson|first1=Styrbjörn|last2=Herard|first2=Sebastian|last3=Dahlqvist Leinhard|first3=Olof|last4=Lindström|first4=Torbjörb|last5=Länne|first5=Toste|last6=Borga|first6=Magnus|last7=Nystrom|first7=Fredrik H.|title=Men develop more intraabdominal obesity and signs of the metabolic syndrome after hyperalimentation than women|journal=Metabolism|volume=58|issue=7|year=2009|pages=995–1001|issn=00260495|doi=10.1016/j.metabol.2009.02.028}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
Line 980: Line 996:
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Clinical manifestation
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Not applicable
|-
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Liver failure<ref name="LangeBojunga2009">{{cite journal|last1=Lange|first1=Christian M.|last2=Bojunga|first2=Jörg|last3=Hofmann|first3=Wolf Peter|last4=Wunder|first4=Katrin|last5=Mihm|first5=Ulrike|last6=Zeuzem|first6=Stefan|last7=Sarrazin|first7=Christoph|title=Severe lactic acidosis during treatment of chronic hepatitis B with entecavir in patients with impaired liver function|journal=Hepatology|volume=50|issue=6|year=2009|pages=2001–2006|issn=02709139|doi=10.1002/hep.23346}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Liver failure]]<ref name="LangeBojunga2009">{{cite journal|last1=Lange|first1=Christian M.|last2=Bojunga|first2=Jörg|last3=Hofmann|first3=Wolf Peter|last4=Wunder|first4=Katrin|last5=Mihm|first5=Ulrike|last6=Zeuzem|first6=Stefan|last7=Sarrazin|first7=Christoph|title=Severe lactic acidosis during treatment of chronic hepatitis B with entecavir in patients with impaired liver function|journal=Hepatology|volume=50|issue=6|year=2009|pages=2001–2006|issn=02709139|doi=10.1002/hep.23346}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
Line 1,015: Line 1,032:
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |[[Liver biopsy]]
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |[[Liver biopsy]]
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Not applicable
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Endocrine
! rowspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Endocrine
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Hyperparathyroidism<ref name="BilezikianPotts2002">{{cite journal|last1=Bilezikian|first1=John P.|last2=Potts|first2=John T.|last3=Fuleihan|first3=Ghada El-Hajj|last4=Kleerekoper|first4=Michael|last5=Neer|first5=Robert|last6=Peacock|first6=Munro|last7=Rastad|first7=Jonas|last8=Silverberg|first8=Shonni J.|last9=Udelsman|first9=Robert|last10=Wells|first10=Samuel A.|title=Summary Statement from a Workshop on Asymptomatic Primary Hyperparathyroidism: A Perspective for the 21st Century|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|volume=87|issue=12|year=2002|pages=5353–5361|issn=0021-972X|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-021370}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Hyperparathyroidism]]<ref name="BilezikianPotts2002">{{cite journal|last1=Bilezikian|first1=John P.|last2=Potts|first2=John T.|last3=Fuleihan|first3=Ghada El-Hajj|last4=Kleerekoper|first4=Michael|last5=Neer|first5=Robert|last6=Peacock|first6=Munro|last7=Rastad|first7=Jonas|last8=Silverberg|first8=Shonni J.|last9=Udelsman|first9=Robert|last10=Wells|first10=Samuel A.|title=Summary Statement from a Workshop on Asymptomatic Primary Hyperparathyroidism: A Perspective for the 21st Century|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|volume=87|issue=12|year=2002|pages=5353–5361|issn=0021-972X|doi=10.1210/jc.2002-021370}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
Line 1,048: Line 1,066:
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |[[Parathyroid hormone|PTH]] level
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |[[Parathyroid hormone|PTH]] level
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
* Not applicable
|-
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |Addison's disease<ref name="TenNew2001">{{cite journal|last1=Ten|first1=Svetlana|last2=New|first2=Maria|last3=Maclaren|first3=Noel|title=Addison’s Disease 2001|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|volume=86|issue=7|year=2001|pages=2909–2922|issn=0021-972X|doi=10.1210/jcem.86.7.7636}}</ref>
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" + |[[Addison's disease]]<ref name="TenNew2001">{{cite journal|last1=Ten|first1=Svetlana|last2=New|first2=Maria|last3=Maclaren|first3=Noel|title=Addison’s Disease 2001|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|volume=86|issue=7|year=2001|pages=2909–2922|issn=0021-972X|doi=10.1210/jcem.86.7.7636}}</ref>
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |−
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
| align="center" style="background:#F5F5F5;" + | +
Line 1,098: Line 1,117:
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |BP
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |BP
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Dehydration
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Dehydration
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |LOC
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Level of consciousness
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |paCO<sub>2</sub>
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |paCO<sub>2</sub>
Line 1,122: Line 1,141:
==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Medicine]]
[[Category:Nephrology]]
[[Category:Up-To-Date]]

Latest revision as of 22:43, 29 July 2020


Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sadaf Sharfaei M.D.[2]

Overview

Metabolic acidosis is occured in different situations such as poisoning, ketoacidosis, renal, gastrointestinal, cardiac, endocrine, and systemic diseases. 

Metabolic Acidosis Differential Diagnosis

Differential diagnosis of metabolic acidosis is as follow:[1][2][3][4]

To review differential diagnosis of high anion gap metabolic acidosis, click here.

To review differential diagnosis of high osmolar gap metabolic acidosis, click here.

To review differential diagnosis of metabolic acidosis and lactic acidosis, click here.

Category Disease Mechanism Clinical Paraclinical Gold standard diagnosis Other findings
Symptoms Signs Lab data
ABG CBC Chemistry Renal U/A
↑ acid
production 		Loss of
bicarbonate 		↓ renal acid
excretion 		Fever N/V Diarrhea Dyspnea Toxic/ill BP Dehydration Level of consciousness HCO3− paCO2 O2 WBC Hb BS Cl− K+ Na+ Ketones Lactic acid Serum AG[5] Osmolar gap[6] Bun Cr Urine pH Urine AG Urine ketone
Toxin/Medication[7] Alcohol poisoning[8][9] + − − − + − − + ↓ ↑ + ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Nl Nl ↑ ↑ ↑ Nl + ↑ ↑ ↑ Nl or ↑ Nl or ↑ ↓ + + Clinical manifestation
+ − − − + − − + ↓ + ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↑ Nl + ↑ Nl ↑ Nl Nl or ↑ ↓ + + Clinical manifestation
  • Not applicable
Toluene toxicity[11] + − + − + − − + ↓ − ↓ ↓↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl ↓ Nl − ↑ Nl or ↑ Nl ↑ ↑ ↓ − + Clinical manifestation
  • Most widely abused inhaled drugs
Salicylates overdose[12] + − − − + − + + ↓ + ↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl to ↓ Nl ↓ Nl − ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↓ − − Clinical and elevated serum salicylate level
Metformin[13] + − − − + − − + ↓ ± Agitated ↓ ↓ Nl Nl to ↑ ↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↑ ↑ Nl or ↑ Nl ↓ − − Clinical manifestation
Isoniazid[14] + − − − + − − + ↑ + Agitated ↓ ↓ Nl Nl ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↑ Nl Nl or ↑ Nl ↓ − − Clinical manifestation
Acetazolamide[15] − + − − − − − − ↓ + Nl ↓ ↓ Nl to ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl or ↑ Nl ↓ − − Clinical manifestation
  • Not applicable
Amphotericin B[16] − − + − + + − + ↓ + ↓ ↓ ↓ Nl to ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↑ ↓ − − Clinical manifestation
  • Not applicable
Carbon monoxide poisoning[17] + − + − ± − − + Nl − ↓↓ ↓ ↓ Nl to ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↑ Nl Nl Nl ↓ − − Clinical manifestation
  • Not applicable
Cyanide poisoning[18] + − − − + − − + ↓ ± ↓↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Nl to ↑ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↑ Nl Nl or ↑ Nl ↓ − − Blood cyanide concentration
  • Not applicable
Category Disease ↑ acid
production 		Loss of
bicarbonate 		↓ renal acid
excretion 		Fever N/V Diarrhea Dyspnea Toxic/ill BP Dehydration Level of consciousness HCO3− paCO2 O2 WBC Hb BS Cl− K+ Na+ Ketones Lactic acid Serum AG Osmolar gap Bun Cr Urine pH Urine AG Urine ketone Gold standard diagnosis Other findings
Ketoacidosis Diabetic ketoacidosis[19] + − − + + + + + ↓ + ↓ ↓ ↓ Nl to ↓ ↑ Nl to ↑ ↑↑ Nl ↑ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ Nl to ↑ Nl ↓ + + Clinical + hyperglycemia + ketosis
  • Labs might show elevated K+ even in K+ depletion due to extravasation of intracellular K+ in exchanged with extracellular H+
Starvation[20] + − − − + − − + ↓ + ↓ ↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl to ↓ Nl ↓ ↓ ↑ Nl ↑ Nl Nl Nl Nl + − Clinical manifestation
Alcoholic ketoacidosis (Ethanol)[21] + − − − + ± − + ↓ ↑ + Agitated ↓ ↓ ↓ Nl to ↑ Nl to ↑ ↓ Nl ↑ Nl ↓ ↓ ↑↑ ↑ ↑ ↑↑ ↑ Nl ↓ + + Clinical manifestation + ketosis
Systemic Sepsis[22] + − − + + − + + ↓ ↑ + ↓ ↓ ↓ Nl to ↓ ↑ Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↓ Nl Nl to ↑ Nl Nl ↑ ↑ Nl − − Clinical manifestation and lab finding
  • Not applicable
Ischemia[23] + − − − + − + + ↓ + − ↓ ↓ ↑ Nl to ↓ Nl to ↑ Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↓ Nl Nl to ↑ Nl Nl Nl to ↑ Nl to ↑ Nl − − Clinical manifestation and lab finding
  • Not applicable
Lactic acidosis[24] + − − ± + − − + ↓ ↑ ± Agitated ↓ ↓ ↓ Nl to ↑ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↑ ↑ Nl or ↑ Nl ↓ − − Clinical manifestation and lab finding
  • Not applicable
Renal Uremia[25] − − + + + − − + ↓ ↑ ± ↓ ↓ ↓ Nl to ↓ ↑ ↓ Nl Nl ↑ ↑ Nl Nl ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↓ + − Clinical manifestation and lab finding
Renal failure[26] − − + − + − − + ↓ + ↓ ↓ ↓ Nl to ↓ ↑ ↓ Nl ↑ ↑ ↓ Nl Nl ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↓ − − Renal function test
  • Not applicable
Renal tubular acidosis[27] Type I[28] − − + ± ± − − − ↓ ↑ − − ↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↑ ↑ + − Clinical manifestation and lab finding
Type II − + − ± ± − − − ↓ ↑ − − ↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl − − Clinical manifestation and lab finding
  • Not applicable
Type IV − − + ± ± ± − − ↓ − − ↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↑ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl + − Clinical manifestation and lab finding
Category Disease ↑ acid
production 		Loss of
bicarbonate 		↓ renal acid
excretion 		Fever N/V Diarrhea Dyspnea Toxic/ill BP Dehydration Level of consciousness HCO3− paCO2 O2 WBC Hb BS Cl− K+ Na+ Ketones Lactic acid Serum AG Osmolar gap Bun Cr Urine pH Urine AG Urine ketone Gold standard diagnosis Other findings
Heart Heart failure[29] + + − − ± − + + ↓ ↑ + − ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl ↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl to ↑ Nl to ↑ Nl − − Clinical manifestation+ echocardiogram
Myocardial infarction[30] + − − − + − + + ↓ ↑ − ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑ Nl to ↓ Nl to ↑ Nl Nl Nl ↑ ↓ Nl ↑ Nl Nl Nl to ↑ Nl to ↑ Nl − − Clinical manifestation + ECG
  • Not applicable
GI Diarrhea[31] − + − ± + + − + ↓ + May be lethargic ↓ ↓ Nl Nl ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl ↑ Nl Nl − − Stool exam
  • Not applicable
Hyperalimentation[32] + + − − − + − − Nl − − ↓ ↓ Nl Nl ↓ Nl ↑ ↑ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl − − Clinical manifestation
  • Not applicable
Liver failure[33] − + − − + + − + ↓ + Confused ↓ ↓ Nl Nl ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl − − Liver biopsy
  • Not applicable
Endocrine Hyperparathyroidism[34] − + + − + − − − Nl + Confused ↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl to ↑ Nl Nl − − PTH level
  • Not applicable
Addison's disease[35] − + − − + + − − ↓ + Irritable ↓ ↓ Nl Nl Nl ↓ Nl ↑ ↓ Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl Nl − − Hormone level
Category Disease ↑ acid
production 		Loss of
bicarbonate 		↓ renal acid
excretion 		Fever N/V Diarrhea Dyspnea Toxic/ill BP Dehydration Level of consciousness HCO3− paCO2 O2 WBC Hb BS Cl− K+ Na+ Ketones Lactic acid Serum AG Osmolar gap Bun Cr Urine pH Urine AG Urine ketone Gold standard diagnosis Other findings

References

  1. ↑ Lim S (2007). "Metabolic acidosis". Acta Med Indones. 39 (3): 145–50. PMID 17936961.
  2. ↑ Morris, C. G.; Low, J. (2008). "Metabolic acidosis in the critically ill: Part 1. Classification and pathophysiology". Anaesthesia. 63 (3): 294–301. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2044.2007.05370.x. ISSN 0003-2409.
  3. ↑ Morris CG, Low J (April 2008). "Metabolic acidosis in the critically ill: part 2. Causes and treatment". Anaesthesia. 63 (4): 396–411. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2044.2007.05371.x. PMID 18336491.
  4. ↑ Casaletto, Jennifer J. (2005). "Differential Diagnosis of Metabolic Acidosis". Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America. 23 (3): 771–787. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2005.03.007. ISSN 0733-8627.
  5. ↑ Brubaker RH, Meseeha M. High Anion Gap Metabolic Acidosis. [Updated 2017 Oct 9]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2018 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448090/
  6. ↑ Kraut JA, Xing SX (September 2011). "Approach to the evaluation of a patient with an increased serum osmolal gap and high-anion-gap metabolic acidosis". Am. J. Kidney Dis. 58 (3): 480–4. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.05.018. PMID 21794966.
  7. ↑ Pham, Amy Quynh Trang; Xu, Li Hao Richie; Moe, Orson W. (2015). "Drug-Induced Metabolic Acidosis". F1000Research. doi:10.12688/f1000research.7006.1. ISSN 2046-1402.
  8. ↑ Zehtabchi S, Sinert R, Baron BJ, Paladino L, Yadav K (2005). "Does ethanol explain the acidosis commonly seen in ethanol-intoxicated patients?". Clin Toxicol (Phila). 43 (3): 161–6. PMID 15902789.
  9. ↑ Roberts, Darren M.; Yates, Christopher; Megarbane, Bruno; Winchester, James F.; Maclaren, Robert; Gosselin, Sophie; Nolin, Thomas D.; Lavergne, Valéry; Hoffman, Robert S.; Ghannoum, Marc (2015). "Recommendations for the Role of Extracorporeal Treatments in the Management of Acute Methanol Poisoning". Critical Care Medicine. 43 (2): 461–472. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000000708. ISSN 0090-3493.
  10. ↑ Ashurst JV, Nappe TM. Toxicity, Isopropanol. [Updated 2018 Mar 8]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2018 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493181/
  11. ↑ Camara-Lemarroy, Carlos Rodrigo; Rodríguez-Gutiérrez, René; Monreal-Robles, Roberto; González-González, José Gerardo (2015). "Acute toluene intoxication–clinical presentation, management and prognosis: a prospective observational study". BMC Emergency Medicine. 15 (1). doi:10.1186/s12873-015-0039-0. ISSN 1471-227X.
  12. ↑ Wright, Dallas; Sop, Jessica (2015). "Normal anion gap salicylate poisoning". The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 33 (11): 1714.e3–1714.e4. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2015.03.042. ISSN 0735-6757.
  13. ↑ Galiero, Francesca; Consani, Giovanni; Biancofiore, Gianni; Ruschi, Stefano; Forfori, Francesco (2018). "Metformin intoxication: Vasopressin's key role in the management of severe lactic acidosis". The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 36 (2): 341.e5–341.e6. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2017.10.057. ISSN 0735-6757.
  14. ↑ Watkins RC, Hambrick EL, Benjamin G, Chavda SN (January 1990). "Isoniazid toxicity presenting as seizures and metabolic acidosis". J Natl Med Assoc. 82 (1): 57, 62, 64. PMC 2625939. PMID 2304098.
  15. ↑ Teppema, Luc J.; Balanos, George M.; Steinback, Craig D.; Brown, Allison D.; Foster, Glen E.; Duff, Henry J.; Leigh, Richard; Poulin, Marc J. (2007). "Effects of Acetazolamide on Ventilatory, Cerebrovascular, and Pulmonary Vascular Responses to Hypoxia". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 175 (3): 277–281. doi:10.1164/rccm.200608-1199OC. ISSN 1073-449X.
  16. ↑ Bates, D. W.; Su, L.; Yu, D. T.; Chertow, G. M.; Seger, D. L.; Gomes, D. R. J.; Dasbach, E. J.; Platt, R. (2001). "Mortality and Costs of Acute Renal Failure Associated with Amphotericin B Therapy". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 32 (5): 686–693. doi:10.1086/319211. ISSN 1058-4838.
  17. ↑ Piantadosi CA (June 1999). "Diagnosis and treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning". Respir Care Clin N Am. 5 (2): 183–202. PMID 10333448.
  18. ↑ Baud FJ, Borron SW, Mégarbane B, Trout H, Lapostolle F, Vicaut E, Debray M, Bismuth C (September 2002). "Value of lactic acidosis in the assessment of the severity of acute cyanide poisoning". Crit. Care Med. 30 (9): 2044–50. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000026325.65944.7D. PMID 12352039.
  19. ↑ Wolfsdorf, Joseph I; Allgrove, Jeremy; Craig, Maria E; Edge, Julie; Glaser, Nicole; Jain, Vandana; Lee, Warren WR; Mungai, Lucy NW; Rosenbloom, Arlan L; Sperling, Mark A; Hanas, Ragnar (2014). "Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state". Pediatric Diabetes. 15 (S20): 154–179. doi:10.1111/pedi.12165. ISSN 1399-543X.
  20. ↑ Mostert M, Bonavia A (October 2016). "Starvation Ketoacidosis as a Cause of Unexplained Metabolic Acidosis in the Perioperative Period". Am J Case Rep. 17: 755–758. PMC 5070574. PMID 27752032.
  21. ↑ Howard RD, Bokhari S. PMID 28613672. Vancouver style error: initials (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  22. ↑ Ganesh K, Sharma RN, Varghese J, Pillai MG (2016). "A profile of metabolic acidosis in patients with sepsis in an Intensive Care Unit setting". Int J Crit Illn Inj Sci. 6 (4): 178–181. doi:10.4103/2229-5151.195417. PMC 5225760. PMID 28149822.
  23. ↑ Kimmoun, Antoine; Novy, Emmanuel; Auchet, Thomas; Ducrocq, Nicolas; Levy, Bruno (2015). "Hemodynamic consequences of severe lactic acidosis in shock states: from bench to bedside". Critical Care. 19 (1). doi:10.1186/s13054-015-0896-7. ISSN 1364-8535.
  24. ↑ Kraut, Jeffrey A.; Ingelfinger, Julie R.; Madias, Nicolaos E. (2014). "Lactic Acidosis". New England Journal of Medicine. 371 (24): 2309–2319. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1309483. ISSN 0028-4793.
  25. ↑ Brown, Denver; Melamed, Michal L. (2018). "New Frontiers in Treating Uremic Metabolic Acidosis". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 13 (1): 4–5. doi:10.2215/CJN.11771017. ISSN 1555-9041.
  26. ↑ Kraut, Jeffrey A.; Madias, Nicolaos E. (2016). "Metabolic Acidosis of CKD: An Update". American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 67 (2): 307–317. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.08.028. ISSN 0272-6386.
  27. ↑ Gil-Peña, Helena; Mejía, Natalia; Santos, Fernando (2014). "Renal Tubular Acidosis". The Journal of Pediatrics. 164 (4): 691–698.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.10.085. ISSN 0022-3476.
  28. ↑ Hemstreet, Brian A (2004). "Antimicrobial-Associated Renal Tubular Acidosis". Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 38 (6): 1031–1038. doi:10.1345/aph.1D573. ISSN 1060-0280.
  29. ↑ Park, Jin Joo; Choi, Dong-Ju; Yoon, Chang-Hwan; Oh, Il-Young; Lee, Ju Hyun; Ahn, Soyeon; Yoo, Byung-Su; Kang, Seok-Min; Kim, Jae-Joong; Baek, Sang-Hong; Cho, Myeong-Chan; Jeon, Eun-Seok; Chae, Shung Chull; Ryu, Kyu-Hyung; Oh, Byung-Hee (2015). "The prognostic value of arterial blood gas analysis in high-risk acute heart failure patients: an analysis of the Korean Heart Failure (KorHF) registry". European Journal of Heart Failure. 17 (6): 601–611. doi:10.1002/ejhf.276. ISSN 1388-9842.
  30. ↑ Mann, Sarah; Bajulaiye, Akinyemi; Sturgeon, Kathleen; Sabri, Abdelkarim; Muthukumaran, Geetha; Libonati, Joseph R. (2014). "Effects of acute angiotensin II on ischemia reperfusion injury following myocardial infarction". Journal of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System. 16 (1): 13–22. doi:10.1177/1470320314554963. ISSN 1470-3203.
  31. ↑ Guerrant, R. L.; Van Gilder, T.; Steiner, T. S.; Thielman, N. M.; Slutsker, L.; Tauxe, R. V.; Hennessy, T.; Griffin, P. M.; DuPont, H.; Bradley Sack, R.; Tarr, P.; Neill, M.; Nachamkin, I.; Reller, L. B.; Osterholm, M. T.; Bennish, M. L.; Pickering, L. K. (2001). "Practice Guidelines for the Management of Infectious Diarrhea". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 32 (3): 331–351. doi:10.1086/318514. ISSN 1058-4838.
  32. ↑ Erlingsson, Styrbjörn; Herard, Sebastian; Dahlqvist Leinhard, Olof; Lindström, Torbjörb; Länne, Toste; Borga, Magnus; Nystrom, Fredrik H. (2009). "Men develop more intraabdominal obesity and signs of the metabolic syndrome after hyperalimentation than women". Metabolism. 58 (7): 995–1001. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2009.02.028. ISSN 0026-0495.
  33. ↑ Lange, Christian M.; Bojunga, Jörg; Hofmann, Wolf Peter; Wunder, Katrin; Mihm, Ulrike; Zeuzem, Stefan; Sarrazin, Christoph (2009). "Severe lactic acidosis during treatment of chronic hepatitis B with entecavir in patients with impaired liver function". Hepatology. 50 (6): 2001–2006. doi:10.1002/hep.23346. ISSN 0270-9139.
  34. ↑ Bilezikian, John P.; Potts, John T.; Fuleihan, Ghada El-Hajj; Kleerekoper, Michael; Neer, Robert; Peacock, Munro; Rastad, Jonas; Silverberg, Shonni J.; Udelsman, Robert; Wells, Samuel A. (2002). "Summary Statement from a Workshop on Asymptomatic Primary Hyperparathyroidism: A Perspective for the 21st Century". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 87 (12): 5353–5361. doi:10.1210/jc.2002-021370. ISSN 0021-972X.
  35. ↑ Ten, Svetlana; New, Maria; Maclaren, Noel (2001). "Addison's Disease 2001". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 86 (7): 2909–2922. doi:10.1210/jcem.86.7.7636. ISSN 0021-972X.
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