Second degree AV block causes: Difference between revisions

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__NOTOC__
__NOTOC__
{{Second degree AV block}}
{{Second degree AV block}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{CZ}} {{MS}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{CZ}}; {{MS}}
<br>{{SK}}; AV block, atrioventricular block, heart block, Mobitz type I AV block, Mobitz type II AV block, Advanced second degree AV block,  (Wenckebach) AV block


==Overview==
==Overview==
 
Common causes of second degree [[AV block]] include acute [[myocardial ischemia]] or [[infarction]], [[infiltrative]] diseases, [[collagen vascular disease]], [[surgical trauma]], [[endocrine]] abnormalities, [[autonomic]] effects, [[neuromuscular ]] disorders, and [[medication]]s.
Atrioventricular (AV) block is defined as an interruption in the transmission of an impulse, either transient or permanent, from the atria to the ventricles due to an anatomic or functional impairment in the conduction system.  In second degree AV block, some atrial impulses fail to reach the ventricles.  Wenckebach described progressive delay between atrial and ventricular contraction and the eventual failure of an atrial beat to reach the ventricles.  Mobitz subsequently divided second degree AV block into two subtypes, as determined by the findings on the [[electrocardiogram]].  In Mobitz type I AV block, progressive PR interval prolongation precedes a non-conducted P wave. While in Mobitz type II AV block, the PR interval remains unchanged prior to a P wave that suddenly fails to conduct to the ventricles.


==Causes==
==Causes==
===Life Threatening Causes===
===Life Threatening Causes===
Life-threatening conditions  can result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.
Life-threatening conditions  can result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated<ref name="pmid29493981">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mangi MA, Jones WM, Napier L |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |date= |pmid=29493981 |doi= |url=}}</ref>.
* [[Acute myocardial infarction]]
* [[Acute myocardial infarction]]<ref name="pmid30227965">{{cite journal |vauthors=Misumida N, Ogunbayo GO, Kim SM, Abdel-Latif A, Ziada KM, Elayi CS |title=Frequency and Significance of High-Degree Atrioventricular Block and Sinoatrial Node Dysfunction in Patients With Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction |journal=Am. J. Cardiol. |volume=122 |issue=10 |pages=1598–1603 |date=November 2018 |pmid=30227965 |doi=10.1016/j.amjcard.2018.08.001 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23224264">{{cite journal |vauthors=Barold SS, Herweg B |title=Second-degree atrioventricular block revisited |journal=Herzschrittmacherther Elektrophysiol |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=296–304 |date=December 2012 |pmid=23224264 |doi=10.1007/s00399-012-0240-8 |url=}}</ref>
* [[Acute rheumatic fever]]
* [[Acute rheumatic fever]]
* [[Bacterial endocarditis]]
* [[Bacterial endocarditis]]
* [[Myocarditis]]
* [[Myocarditis]]
* [[hypothermia|Severe hypothermia]]


===Common Causes===  
===Common Causes===  
* [[Acute rheumatic fever]]
* [[Acute rheumatic fever]]
* AV nodal disease
* [[Bacterial endocarditis]]<ref name="pmid27585419">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kamatani T, Akizuki A, Kondo S, Shirota T |title=Second-Degree Atrioventricular Block Occurring After Tooth Extraction |journal=Anesth Prog |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=156–9 |date=Fall 2016 |pmid=27585419 |pmc=5011958 |doi=10.2344/15-00042.1 |url=}}</ref>
* [[Bacterial endocarditis]], especially of the [[aortic valve]]
* [[Beta blocker|β blockers]] may cause [[AV block]]
* [[aortic stenosis|Calcific aortic stenosis]]
* [[aortic stenosis|Calcific aortic stenosis]]
* [[Degenerative disease]]
* [[Digoxin]]
* [[Digoxin]]
* [[Dilated cardiomyopathy]]
* [[Dilated cardiomyopathy]]
* [[Diltiazem]]
* [[Diltiazem]]
* [[vagus nerve|Enhanced vagal tone]]
* [[Vasovagal syncope#Cardioinhibitory Response|Enhanced vagal tone]]
* [[HCM]]
* [[HCM]]
* [[Hypertension]]
* [[Hypertension]]
* Iatrogenic after correction of [[VSD]], [[tetralogy of Fallot]], and [[endocardial cushion defect]]
* [[Iatrogenic]] after surgical correction of [[VSD]], [[tetralogy of Fallot]], and [[endocardial cushion defect]]
* Inferior [[ST elevation MI]]
* [[ST elevation MI|Inferior ST elevation MI]]
* [[mitral valve sclerosis|Massive calcification of the mitral annulus]]
* [[mitral valve sclerosis|Massive calcification of the mitral annulus]]
* [[myocarditis]]
* [[Myocarditis]]
* Normal variants
* [[PR interval|Normal variants]]<ref name="pmid8445186">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wogan JM, Lowenstein SR, Gordon GS |title=Second-degree atrioventricular block: Mobitz type II |journal=J Emerg Med |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=47–54 |date=1993 |pmid=8445186 |doi=10.1016/0736-4679(93)90009-v |url=}}</ref>
* [[chest trauma|Penetrating and non-penetrating trauma of the chest]]
* [[chest trauma|Penetrating and non-penetrating trauma of the chest]]
* [[Rheumatic mitral valve disease]]
* [[Lev's disease|Sclerodegenerative disease of the electrical conduction system]]
* Sclerodegenerative disease of the bundle branches first described by Lenegre
* [[Verapamil]]
* [[Transposition of the great vessels]]
* [[Beta blocker|β blockers]]
* Valvular Heart Disease
* [[verapamil]]


===Causes by Organ System===
===Causes by Organ System===
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | AV nodal disease, [[Myocarditis]], Acute [[myocardial infarction]] (especially acute inferior MI), [[Hypertension]], [[Acute rheumatic fever]], [[Dilated cardiomyopathy]], [[HCM]], [[Myocarditis]], [[Valvular heart disease]], [[Transposition of the great vessels]], [[ASD]]s, [[Ebstein's anomaly]], [[VSD]], [[Tetralogy of Fallot]], [[Endocardial cushion defect]]
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | [[Acute myocardial infarction]], [[acute rheumatic fever]], [[ASD]], [[dilated cardiomyopathy]], [[Ebstein's anomaly]], [[Carotid sinus hypersensitivity|hypersensitive carotid sinus syndrome]], [[hypertension]], [[hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]], [[Lev's disease]], [[myocardial bridging]], [[myocarditis]], [[PR interval|normal variants]], [[Aortic valve replacement|post aortic valve  replacement]], [[catheter ablation|post catheter ablation for arrhythmias]], [[ventricular septal defect surgery|post closure of a ventricular septal defect]], [[mitral valve replacement|post mitral valve replacement]], [[tetralogy of Fallot]], [[endocardial cushion defect]], [[transposition of the great vessels]], [[valvular heart disease]], [[VSD]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Calcium channel blockers]], [[Beta-blockers]], [[Digitalis]], [[Cardiac glycosides]], [[Cholinesterase inhibitor]]s, [[Quinidine]],[[Procainamide]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Amiodarone]], [[beta-blockers]], [[digitalis]], [[calcium channel blockers]], [[cholinesterase inhibitor|cholinesterase inhibitors]], [[disopyramide]], [[dofetilide]], [[dolasetron]], [[donepezil]], [[eslicarbazepine acetate]], [[fesoterodine]], [[fingolimod]], [[flecainide]], [[ibutilide]], [[lacosamide]], [[magnesium]], [[paliperidone]], [[pramipexole]], [[procainamide]], [[propafenone]], [[propoxyphene]], [[quinidine]], [[sotalol]], [[terodiline]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
| '''Endocrine'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Hyperthyroidism]], [[myxedema]], [[periodic  paralysis|thyrotoxic periodic paralysis]]
|-  
|-  
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
| '''Environmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Hypothermia]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
Line 76: Line 70:
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy]], [[Fabry disease]], [[glycogenosis type 2b]], [[Neuromuscular disease|hereditary neuromuscular disease]], [[Kearns-Sayre syndrome]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
| '''Hematologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Multiple myeloma]] [[Lymphoma]]<ref name="pmid27200273">{{cite journal |vauthors=Menicagli F, Lanza A, Sbrocca F, Baldi A, Spugnini EP |title=A case of advanced second-degree atrioventricular block in a ferret secondary to lymphoma |journal=Open Vet J |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=68–70 |date=2016 |pmid=27200273 |pmc=4833871 |doi=10.4314/ovj.v6i1.10 |url=}}</ref>
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[aortic valve  replacement|Post aortic valve  replacement]], [[catheter ablation|post catheter ablation for  arrhythmias]], [[ventricular septal defect surgery|post closure of a  ventricular septal defect]], [[mitral valve  replacement|post mitral valve  replacement]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Acute rheumatic fever]], [[Chagas disease]], [[Diphtheria]], [[Lyme disease]], [[Myocarditis]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Acute rheumatic fever]], [[Chagas disease]], [[diphtheria]], [[Lyme disease]], [[myocarditis]], [[neonatal lupus erythematosus]], [[protozoa|protozoal infection]], [[sarcoidosis]], [[SLE]], [[tuberculosis]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Ankylosing spondylitis]], [[Muscular dystrophy]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Ankylosing spondylitis]], [[Neuromuscular disease|hereditary neuromuscular disease]], [[Kearns-Sayre syndrome]], [[mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial genome inherited conditions]], [[muscular dystrophy]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
| '''Neurologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Vasovagal syncope#Cardioinhibitory Response|Enhanced vagal tone]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Fabry disease]], [[glycogenosis type 2b]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
Line 108: Line 102:
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
| '''Oncologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Multiple myeloma]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ophthalmologic'''
| '''Opthalmologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-
Line 128: Line 122:
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Hyperkalemia]], [[hypokalemia]]
|-
 
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Ankylosing spondylitis]], [[Dermatomyositis]], [[Scleroderma]], [[SLE]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Ankylosing spondylitis]], [[dermatomyositis]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[scleroderma]], [[SLE]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
Line 152: Line 146:
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  [[Amyloidosis]], Enhanced vagal tone (for example in athletes), Normal variants
|bgcolor="Beige"|  [[Amyloidosis]], [[degenerative diseases]]
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
*Acute [[myocardial infarction]] (especially acute inferior MI)
{{col-begin|width=80%}}
*[[Acute rheumatic fever]]
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Amyloidosis]]
* [[Acute  myocardial infarction]]
*[[Ankylosing spondylitis]]
* [[Acute rheumatic fever]]
*[[ASD]]
* [[Amyloidosis]]
*AV nodal disease
* [[Ankylosing spondylitis]]
*[[Beta-blocker]]s
* [[ASD]]
*[[Calcium channel blocker]]s
* [[Bacterial endocarditis]]
*[[Cardiac glycosides]]
* [[Beta-blockers]]
*[[Chagas disease]]
* [[Calcific aortic stenosis]]
*[[Cholinesterase inhibitor]]s
* [[Calcium channel blockers]]
*[[Dermatomyositis]]
* [[Cardiac glycosides]]
*[[Digitalis]]
* [[Cardiac tumors]]
*[[Dilated cardiomyopathy]]
* [[Chagas disease]]
*[[Diphtheria]]
* [[Cholinesterase inhibitors]]
*[[Ebstein's anomaly]]
* [[Clonidine]]
*[[Endocardial cushion defect]]
* [[Degenerative diseases]]
*Enhanced vagal tone (for example in athletes)
* [[Dermatomyositis]]
*[[HCM]]
* [[Digitalis]]
*[[Hemochromatosis]]
* [[Digoxin]]
*[[Hypertension]]
* [[Dilated cardiomyopathy]]
*[[Lyme disease]]
* [[Diltiazem]]
*[[Muscular dystrophy]]
* [[Diphtheria]]
*[[Myocarditis]]
* [[Disopyramide]]
*Normal variants
* [[Dolasetron]]
*[[Procainamide]]
* [[Donepezil]]
*[[Quinidine]]
* [[Ebstein's anomaly]]
*[[Sarcoidosis]]
* [[Electrolyte disturbances]]
*[[Scleroderma]]
* [[Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy]]
*[[SLE]]
* [[Endocarditis]]
*[[Tetralogy of Fallot]]
* [[vagus nerve|Enhanced vagal tone in athletes]]
*[[Transposition of the great vessels]]
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Valvular heart disease]]
* [[Eslicarbazepine acetate]]
*[[VSD]]
* [[Fabry disease]]
* [[Fesoterodine]]
* [[Fingolimod]]
* [[Glycogenosis type 2b]]
* [[HCM]]
* [[Neuromuscular disease|Hereditary neuromuscular disease]]
* [[Hodgkin lymphoma]]
* [[Hyperkalaemia]]
* [[Carotid sinus hypersensitivity|Hypersensitive carotid  sinus syndrome]]
* [[Hyperthyroidism]]
* [[Hypokalaemia]]
* [[Hypothermia]]
* [[Ibutilide]]
* [[Ischemic heart disease]]
* [[Kearns-Sayre syndrome]]
* [[Labetalol]]
* [[Lacosamide]]
* [[Lanatoside C]]
* [[Lenegre's disease]]
* [[Lev's disease]]
* [[Lyme disease]]
* [[Mitochondrial DNA|Mitochondrial genome inherited conditions]]
* [[Multiple myeloma]]
* [[Muscular dystrophy]]
* [[Myocardial bridging]]
* [[Myocarditis]]
* [[Myotonic dystrophy]]
* [[Myxedema]]
{{col-break|width=33%}}
* [[Neonatal lupus erythematosus]]
* [[prolonged PR interval|Normal variants of PR prolongation]]
* [[Paliperidone]]
* [[aortic valve  replacement|Post aortic valve replacement]]
* [[catheter ablation|Post catheter ablation for  arrhythmias]]
* [[Ventricular septal defect surgery|Post closure of a  ventricular septal defect]]
* [[mitral valve  replacement|Post mitral valve  replacement]]
* [[Procainamide]]
* [[Propoxyphene]]
* [[Propranolol]]
* [[Protozoa|Protozoal infection]]
* [[Quinidine]]
* [[Quinine]]
* [[Rheumatic fever|Rheumatic mitral valve disease]]
* [[Sarcoidosis]]
* [[SLE]]
* [[Systemic sclerosis]]
* [[Terodiline]]
* [[Tetralogy of Fallot]]
* [[periodic  paralysis|Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis]]
* [[Tolterodine]]
* [[Transposition of the great vessels]]
* [[vagus nerve|Vagal maneuvers]]
* [[Valsalva maneuvers]]
* [[Valvular heart disease]]
* [[Verapamil]]
* [[VSD]]
* [[sex linkage|X-linked inherited  conditions]]
{{col-end}}
===Contraindicated medications===
{{MedCondContrAbs
 
|MedCond = Second degree AV block (except in [[patients]] with a functioning artificial [[pacemaker]])<ref name="pmid26115830">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brignole M, Deharo JC, Guieu R |title=Syncope and Idiopathic (Paroxysmal) AV Block |journal=Cardiol Clin |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=441–7 |date=August 2015 |pmid=26115830 |doi=10.1016/j.ccl.2015.04.012 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11229299">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kelkar PN |title=Atenolol induced high grade AV block |journal=J Assoc Physicians India |volume=46 |issue=8 |pages=748, 751 |date=August 1998 |pmid=11229299 |doi= |url=}}</ref>|Adenosine|Atenolol|Betaxolol|Bisoprolol|Brimonidine tartrate and Timolol maleate|Carteolol|Diltiazem|Disopyramide|Dronedarone|Fingolimod|Flecainide|Metoprolol|Mexiletine|Nadolol|Nebivolol|Penbutolol|Pindolol|Propranolol|Sotalol|Timolol|Labetalol}}<ref name="pmid15234417">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zeltser D, Justo D, Halkin A, Rosso R, Ish-Shalom M, Hochenberg M, Viskin S |title=Drug-induced atrioventricular block: prognosis after discontinuation of the culprit drug |journal=J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=105–8 |date=July 2004 |pmid=15234417 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2004.03.057 |url=}}</ref>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}


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Latest revision as of 05:40, 12 July 2021

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [2]; Mahmoud Sakr, M.D. [3]

Overview

Common causes of second degree AV block include acute myocardial ischemia or infarction, infiltrative diseases, collagen vascular disease, surgical trauma, endocrine abnormalities, autonomic effects, neuromuscular disorders, and medications.

Causes

Life Threatening Causes

Life-threatening conditions can result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated[1].

Common Causes

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Acute myocardial infarction, acute rheumatic fever, ASD, dilated cardiomyopathy, Ebstein's anomaly, hypersensitive carotid sinus syndrome, hypertension, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Lev's disease, myocardial bridging, myocarditis, normal variants, post aortic valve replacement, post catheter ablation for arrhythmias, post closure of a ventricular septal defect, post mitral valve replacement, tetralogy of Fallot, endocardial cushion defect, transposition of the great vessels, valvular heart disease, VSD
Chemical / poisoning No underlying causes
Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect Amiodarone, beta-blockers, digitalis, calcium channel blockers, cholinesterase inhibitors, disopyramide, dofetilide, dolasetron, donepezil, eslicarbazepine acetate, fesoterodine, fingolimod, flecainide, ibutilide, lacosamide, magnesium, paliperidone, pramipexole, procainamide, propafenone, propoxyphene, quinidine, sotalol, terodiline
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine Hyperthyroidism, myxedema, thyrotoxic periodic paralysis
Environmental Hypothermia
Gastroenterologic Hemochromatosis
Genetic Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, Fabry disease, glycogenosis type 2b, hereditary neuromuscular disease, Kearns-Sayre syndrome
Hematologic Multiple myeloma Lymphoma[6]
Iatrogenic Post aortic valve replacement, post catheter ablation for arrhythmias, post closure of a ventricular septal defect, post mitral valve replacement
Infectious Disease Acute rheumatic fever, Chagas disease, diphtheria, Lyme disease, myocarditis, neonatal lupus erythematosus, protozoal infection, sarcoidosis, SLE, tuberculosis
Musculoskeletal / Ortho Ankylosing spondylitis, hereditary neuromuscular disease, Kearns-Sayre syndrome, mitochondrial genome inherited conditions, muscular dystrophy
Neurologic Enhanced vagal tone
Nutritional / Metabolic Fabry disease, glycogenosis type 2b
Obstetric/Gynecologic No underlying causes
Oncologic Multiple myeloma
Opthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose / Toxicity No underlying causes
Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary Sarcoidosis
Renal / Electrolyte Hyperkalemia, hypokalemia
Rheum / Immune / Allergy Ankylosing spondylitis, dermatomyositis, rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma, SLE
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma No underlying causes
Urologic No underlying causes
Dental No underlying causes
Miscellaneous Amyloidosis, degenerative diseases

Causes in Alphabetical Order

Contraindicated medications

Second degree AV block (except in patients with a functioning artificial pacemaker)[7][8] is considered an absolute contraindication to the use of the following medications:

References

  1. ↑ Mangi MA, Jones WM, Napier L. PMID 29493981. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  2. ↑ Misumida N, Ogunbayo GO, Kim SM, Abdel-Latif A, Ziada KM, Elayi CS (November 2018). "Frequency and Significance of High-Degree Atrioventricular Block and Sinoatrial Node Dysfunction in Patients With Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction". Am. J. Cardiol. 122 (10): 1598–1603. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2018.08.001. PMID 30227965.
  3. ↑ Barold SS, Herweg B (December 2012). "Second-degree atrioventricular block revisited". Herzschrittmacherther Elektrophysiol. 23 (4): 296–304. doi:10.1007/s00399-012-0240-8. PMID 23224264.
  4. ↑ Kamatani T, Akizuki A, Kondo S, Shirota T (Fall 2016). "Second-Degree Atrioventricular Block Occurring After Tooth Extraction". Anesth Prog. 63 (3): 156–9. doi:10.2344/15-00042.1. PMC 5011958. PMID 27585419.
  5. ↑ Wogan JM, Lowenstein SR, Gordon GS (1993). "Second-degree atrioventricular block: Mobitz type II". J Emerg Med. 11 (1): 47–54. doi:10.1016/0736-4679(93)90009-v. PMID 8445186.
  6. ↑ Menicagli F, Lanza A, Sbrocca F, Baldi A, Spugnini EP (2016). "A case of advanced second-degree atrioventricular block in a ferret secondary to lymphoma". Open Vet J. 6 (1): 68–70. doi:10.4314/ovj.v6i1.10. PMC 4833871. PMID 27200273.
  7. ↑ Brignole M, Deharo JC, Guieu R (August 2015). "Syncope and Idiopathic (Paroxysmal) AV Block". Cardiol Clin. 33 (3): 441–7. doi:10.1016/j.ccl.2015.04.012. PMID 26115830.
  8. ↑ Kelkar PN (August 1998). "Atenolol induced high grade AV block". J Assoc Physicians India. 46 (8): 748, 751. PMID 11229299.
  9. ↑ Zeltser D, Justo D, Halkin A, Rosso R, Ish-Shalom M, Hochenberg M, Viskin S (July 2004). "Drug-induced atrioventricular block: prognosis after discontinuation of the culprit drug". J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 44 (1): 105–8. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2004.03.057. PMID 15234417.


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