Urticaria causes: Difference between revisions

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==Overview==
[[Urticaria]] may be caused [[idiopathic|idiopathically]] or due to [[immunology|immunological disorders]] such as [[autoimmune diseases]], [[food allergies]], [[medications]] and specific [[infections]]. There are also some non-[[immunology|immunological]] causes for [[urticaria]] development, such as physical triggers, [[Diet (nutrition)|dietary]] pseudo-[[allergen]] and [[urticaria|hereditary urticaria]].
==Causes==
==Causes==
Many substances can trigger hives, including:
===Common Causes===
*Animal dander (especially cats)
Common causes of [[urticaria]] may include:<ref name="pmid18713139">{{cite journal| author=Deacock SJ| title=An approach to the patient with urticaria. | journal=Clin Exp Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 153 | issue= 2 | pages= 151-61 | pmid=18713139 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2249.2008.03693.x | pmc=2492902 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18713139  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8258619">{{cite journal| author=Erben AM, Rodriguez JL, McCullough J, Ownby DR| title=Anaphylaxis after ingestion of beignets contaminated with Dermatophagoides farinae. | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 1993 | volume= 92 | issue= 6 | pages= 846-9 | pmid=8258619 | doi=10.1016/0091-6749(93)90062-k | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8258619  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8732238">{{cite journal| author=Beezhold DH, Sussman GL, Liss GM, Chang NS| title=Latex allergy can induce clinical reactions to specific foods. | journal=Clin Exp Allergy | year= 1996 | volume= 26 | issue= 4 | pages= 416-22 | pmid=8732238 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8732238  }} </ref><ref name="pmid31180381">{{cite journal| author=Kayiran MA, Akdeniz N| title=Diagnosis and treatment of urticaria in primary care. | journal=North Clin Istanb | year= 2019 | volume= 6 | issue= 1 | pages= 93-99 | pmid=31180381 | doi=10.14744/nci.2018.75010 | pmc=6526977 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31180381  }} </ref>
*Insect bites
*Medications
:*[[Prednisone]]
:*[[caspofungin acetate]]
:*[[Doxycycline]]
:*[[Doxycycline]]
:*[[Hydrochlorothiazide]]
:*[[Spironolactone]]
*Pollen
*Shellfish, fish, nuts, eggs, milk, and other foods


Hives may also develop as a result of:
*[[Idiopathic]]
*Emotional stress
**Unknown [[etiology]]
*Extreme cold or sun exposure
*[[immunology|Immunological]]:
*Excessive perspiration
**[[Autoimmune]]: [[Immunoglobulin G|IgG]] [[Autoantibody|autoantibodies]] to [[Immunoglobulin G|IgE]] receptor or [[Immunoglobulin G|IgE]] on [[Mast cell|mast cells]] could be the responsible mechanism.
*Illness (including [[lupus]], other autoimmune diseases, and [[leukemia]])
**[[Immunoglobulin E|IgE]]/[[urticaria|contact urticaria]]:
*Infections such as [[mononucleosis]]
***Contact with [[allergen]] cross-links specific [[Immunoglobulin E|IgE]] ([[Immunoglobulin E|SIgE]]) on [[mast cell|mast cells]].
***Could be due to food [[protein]] [[antigen|antigens]] (such a [[mold]] or storage [[mite]]), insect [[Venom|venoms]], animal dander's and/or [[saliva]], [[penicillin]], protease [[Enzyme|enzymes]] in [[Biology|biological]] [[detergents]] and [[Latex allergy|latex proteins]].
***In [[patient|patients]] with [[urticaria]] due to [[latex allergy]], there is a higher chance of a wide variety of food [[allergy]] due to [[cross-reactivity]] between the [[Latex allergy|latex protein]] [[antigen|antigens]] and food [[antigen|antigens]]. The following list is a summary of foods capable of [[cross-reactivity]] with [[latex]] [[proteins]]:
 
<br>
{{Family tree/start}}
{{familytree  |boxstyle=background: #FFFF00; color: #F8F8FF;| | | | | B01 | | | | | B01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; height: 20em; width: 22em; padding:1em;"> '''<span style="color:navy;">The items:</span>'''<br>
----
<span style="color:navy;">❑</span> <span style="color:navy;">High frequency of cross-reactivity, such as avocado, banana and chestnut</span> <br> <span style="color:navy;">❑</span> <span style="color:navy;">Moderate frequency of cross-reactivity such as apple, carrot, celery, kiwi, melon, papaya, potato and tomato</span> <br><span style="color:navy;">❑</span> <span style="color:navy;">Low frequency of cross-reactivity, such as apricot, cherry, fig, grape, hazelnut, mango, nectarine, passion fruit, peach, peanut, pear, plum, pineapple, soybean, strawberry and walnut.
</span> </div>}}
{{familytree/end}}
<br>
 
**[[Food allergy]]:<ref name="pmid18713139">{{cite journal| author=Deacock SJ| title=An approach to the patient with urticaria. | journal=Clin Exp Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 153 | issue= 2 | pages= 151-61 | pmid=18713139 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2249.2008.03693.x | pmc=2492902 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18713139  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid24607044">{{cite journal| author=Rajan JP, Simon RA, Bosso JV| title=Prevalence of sensitivity to food and drug additives in patients with chronic idiopathic urticaria. | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract | year= 2014 | volume= 2 | issue= 2 | pages= 168-71 | pmid=24607044 | doi=10.1016/j.jaip.2013.10.002 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24607044  }} </ref>
***Studies suggest that foods such as nuts, [[seafood]] (such as [[shellfish]]), eggs (especially egg white), fish, meat, chocolate, cow’s milk, fruits (such as [[citrus]] fruits, plums, pineapples, grapes, apples, bananas, and strawberries), vegetables (such as tomatoes, peas, garlic, onion, beans, and carrot), mushrooms, fermented foods, spirits and spices are capable of causing [[urticaria]].
***Although [[food allergy]] is known as a less common cause of adult [[urticaria]], it is a common cause of [[urticaria]] in children. In a study done on adults with [[urticaria]], 63% of [[patients]] suspected foods to be the reason of their [[symptoms]], however [[food allergy]] was responsible for [[urticaria]] development in only 0.9% of them.
**[[medications]]:  
***Sensitivity to [[Cyclooxygenase|Cyclo-oxygenase]] ([[Cyclooxygenase|COX]])-inhibitors ([[aspirin]], [[Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug|NSAIDs]])
***[[Penicillin]]
***[[thiazide|Thiazide diuretics]]
***[[Oral contraceptives]]
***[[ACE inhibitor|Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors]]
***[[Sulfonamide (medicine)|Sulfonamides]]
***[[Vitamins]]
***[[Codeine]] and [[morphine]]
***[[Curare|Curare and its derivatives]]
***[[Adrenocorticotropic hormone|Synthetic adrenocorticotropic hormone]]
***[[Contrast medium|Radiocontrast substances]]
***[[Acetylcysteine]]
***[[Aminohippurate]]
***[[Antimalarial drug|Antimalarial drugs]], such as [[atovaquone and proguanil hydrochloride]] or [[artemether and lumefantrin]]
***[[Aztreonam]]
***[[Benzphetamine]]
***[[Boceprevir]]
***[[Penciclovir]]
***[[Polidocanol]]
***[[Probenecid]]
***[[Carbinoxamine]]
***[[Cephalosporins]], such as [[Cefoxitin sodium]] and [[Cefotaxime sodium]]
***[[Clobazam]]
***[[Dexamethasone]] and [[Prednisone]]
***[[Doxorubicin hydrochloride]]
***[[Lamivudine]]
***[[Dextran]]
***[[Caspofungin]]
***[[Oxaprozin]]
***[[Dapsone]]
***[[Idursulfase]]
***[[Tetracycline]]
***[[Tiagabine]]
***[[Tolbutamide]]
***[[Ferric Carboxymaltose]]
***[[Flavoxate]]
***[[Rifampin]]
***[[Pegademase]]
***[[Pegaspargase]]
***[[Streptomycin]]
***[[Indinavir]] and [[ritonavir]]
***[[Ivermectin]]
***[[Sulfamethoxazole/Trimethoprim (oral)]]
***[[Spironolactone]]
***[[Lidocaine (ointment)]]
***[[Lincomycin Hydrochloride]]
***[[Meropenem]]
***[[Niacin]]
***[[Nizatidine]]
***[[Von Willebrand factor]]
***[[Hepatitis B immunoglobulin]]
**[[infection|Infections]]<ref name="pmid31180381">{{cite journal| author=Kayiran MA, Akdeniz N| title=Diagnosis and treatment of urticaria in primary care. | journal=North Clin Istanb | year= 2019 | volume= 6 | issue= 1 | pages= 93-99 | pmid=31180381 | doi=10.14744/nci.2018.75010 | pmc=6526977 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31180381  }} </ref><ref name="pmid10695557">{{cite journal| author=Wedi B, Kapp A| title=Helicobacter pylori infection and skin diseases. | journal=J Physiol Pharmacol | year= 1999 | volume= 50 | issue= 5 | pages= 753-76 | pmid=10695557 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10695557  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21352335">{{cite journal| author=Akashi R, Ishiguro N, Shimizu S, Kawashima M| title=Clinical study of the relationship between Helicobacter pylori and chronic urticaria and prurigo chronica multiformis: effectiveness of eradication therapy for Helicobacter pylori. | journal=J Dermatol | year= 2011 | volume= 38 | issue= 8 | pages= 761-6 | pmid=21352335 | doi=10.1111/j.1346-8138.2010.01106.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21352335  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21341171">{{cite journal| author=Karaman U, Sener S, Calık S, Saşmaz S| title=[Investigation of microsporidia in patients with acute and chronic urticaria]. | journal=Mikrobiyol Bul | year= 2011 | volume= 45 | issue= 1 | pages= 168-73 | pmid=21341171 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21341171  }} </ref> 
***[[infection|Viral infections]] are the most common cause of [[urticaria|acute urticaria]], mainly [[upper respiratory tract]] [[infections]], such as [[tonsillitis]] and [[rhinosinusitis]]. [[Prevalence]] of [[upper respiratory tract]] [[infections]] in [[urticaria|acute urticaria]] has been estimated between 28 to 62%, based on reports of five studies.
***[[Urinary tract infections]]
***[[Parasitism]]
***[[Hepatitis]]
***[[Mononucleosis|Infectious mononucleosis]]
***[[Tooth abscess|Dental abscesses]]
***[[Helicobacter pylori]] [[infection]]
***[[Syphilis]]
***[[Lyme disease]]
***[[Varicella]]
***[[HIV AIDS|HIV infection]]
**[[urticaria|Urticarial vasculitis]]<ref name="pmid14616095">{{cite journal| author=Zuberbier T| title=Urticaria. | journal=Allergy | year= 2003 | volume= 58 | issue= 12 | pages= 1224-34 | pmid=14616095 | doi=10.1046/j.1398-9995.2003.00327.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14616095  }} </ref>
*Non-[[immunology|immunological]]:
**[[urticaria|Physical urticaria]]: Physical factors trigger [[histamine]] release from [[mast cell|mast cells]].
**[[Diet (nutrition)|Dietary]] pseudo-[[allergen]]:<ref name="pmid18713139">{{cite journal| author=Deacock SJ| title=An approach to the patient with urticaria. | journal=Clin Exp Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 153 | issue= 2 | pages= 151-61 | pmid=18713139 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2249.2008.03693.x | pmc=2492902 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18713139  }} </ref><ref name="pmid952737">{{cite journal| author=Ros AM, Juhlin L, Michaëlsson G| title=A follow-up study of patients with recurrent urticaria and hypersensitivity to aspirin, benzoates and azo dyes. | journal=Br J Dermatol | year= 1976 | volume= 95 | issue= 1 | pages= 19-24 | pmid=952737 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2133.1976.tb15532.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=952737  }} </ref><ref name="pmid1997836">{{cite journal| author=Morrow JD, Margolies GR, Rowland J, Roberts LJ| title=Evidence that histamine is the causative toxin of scombroid-fish poisoning. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1991 | volume= 324 | issue= 11 | pages= 716-20 | pmid=1997836 | doi=10.1056/NEJM199103143241102 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1997836  }} </ref><ref name="pmid31180381">{{cite journal| author=Kayiran MA, Akdeniz N| title=Diagnosis and treatment of urticaria in primary care. | journal=North Clin Istanb | year= 2019 | volume= 6 | issue= 1 | pages= 93-99 | pmid=31180381 | doi=10.14744/nci.2018.75010 | pmc=6526977 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31180381  }} </ref><ref name="pmid14616095">{{cite journal| author=Zuberbier T| title=Urticaria. | journal=Allergy | year= 2003 | volume= 58 | issue= 12 | pages= 1224-34 | pmid=14616095 | doi=10.1046/j.1398-9995.2003.00327.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14616095  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8869688">{{cite journal| author=Zuberbier T, Iffländer J, Semmler C, Henz BM| title=Acute urticaria: clinical aspects and therapeutic responsiveness. | journal=Acta Derm Venereol | year= 1996 | volume= 76 | issue= 4 | pages= 295-7 | pmid=8869688 | doi=10.2340/0001555576295297 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8869688  }} </ref>
***[[Sensitivity (tests)|Sensitivity]] to natural [[Salicylic acid|salicylates]], colorings (both [[Azo compound|azo dyes]] and non-[[Azo compound|azo dyes]]), [[preservatives]] (such as [[sulphite|sulphites]], [[Nitrate|nitrates]] and [[nitrites]]), [[Antioxidant|anti-oxidants]] (such as [[Butylated hydroxyanisole|butylated hydroxyanisole]] ([[Butylated hydroxyanisole|BHA]]) and [[Butylated hydroxytoluene|butylated hydroxytoluene]] ([[Butylated hydroxytoluene|BHT]])) and [[aspartame]] (an [[Sugar substitute|artificial sweetener]]).
***[[Histamine]] [[Poison|poisoning]] is one of the non-[[immunoglobulin E|IgE]]-mediated food-related [[urticaria]], which occur when foods have high [[histamine|histamine content]], such as improperly stored [[Scombroid|scombroid fish]] (such as [[Scombroid|mackerel, tuna and swordfish]]), with high level of [[Histidine|decarboxylated histidine]] due to [[Bacteria|bacterial activities]]. [[Histidine|Decarboxylated histidine]] then produces [[histamine]]. Although spoiled non-scombroid fish, such as herring, sardines and anchovies can also be responsible, due to high [[histamine]] content.
**[[Mold]] spores, pollen, [[mites]], animal [[hair]] and [[dandruff]] and other [[Allergen|respiratory allergens]] might cause [[urticaria]] through [[Breathing|respiration]]. Furthermore, [[smoking]] is related to [[urticaria]] development.<ref name="pmid31180381">{{cite journal| author=Kayiran MA, Akdeniz N| title=Diagnosis and treatment of urticaria in primary care. | journal=North Clin Istanb | year= 2019 | volume= 6 | issue= 1 | pages= 93-99 | pmid=31180381 | doi=10.14744/nci.2018.75010 | pmc=6526977 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31180381  }} </ref>
**[[urticaria|Hereditary urticaria]]
**[[Medicine|Medical conditions]]:
***[[urticaria|Urticaria pigmentosa]]: Increased [[mast cell]] load
***[[Cryopyrin-associated periodic syndrome|Cryopyrin-associated periodic syndrome]] ([[Cryopyrin-associated periodic syndrome|CAPS]]): Due to a [[mutation]] in CIAS1 [[gene]].
***[[Urticaria|Familial form of cold-induced urticaria]]<ref name="pmid66242">{{cite journal| author=Soter NA, Joshi NP, Twarog FJ, Zeiger RS, Rothman PM, Colten HR| title=Delayed cold-induced urticaria: a dominantly inherited disorder. | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 1977 | volume= 59 | issue= 4 | pages= 294-7 | pmid=66242 | doi=10.1016/0091-6749(77)90050-1 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=66242  }} </ref>
***[[Mental disorders]]<ref name="pmid21597672">{{cite journal| author=Staubach P, Dechene M, Metz M, Magerl M, Siebenhaar F, Weller K | display-authors=etal| title=High prevalence of mental disorders and emotional distress in patients with chronic spontaneous urticaria. | journal=Acta Derm Venereol | year= 2011 | volume= 91 | issue= 5 | pages= 557-61 | pmid=21597672 | doi=10.2340/00015555-1109 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21597672  }} </ref><ref name="pmid31180381">{{cite journal| author=Kayiran MA, Akdeniz N| title=Diagnosis and treatment of urticaria in primary care. | journal=North Clin Istanb | year= 2019 | volume= 6 | issue= 1 | pages= 93-99 | pmid=31180381 | doi=10.14744/nci.2018.75010 | pmc=6526977 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31180381  }} </ref>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
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[[Category:Dermatology]]
[[Category:Dermatology]]
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[[Category:Needs causes]]
[[Category:Primary care]]
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Latest revision as of 04:12, 28 January 2021

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Anahita Deylamsalehi, M.D.[2]

Overview

Urticaria may be caused idiopathically or due to immunological disorders such as autoimmune diseases, food allergies, medications and specific infections. There are also some non-immunological causes for urticaria development, such as physical triggers, dietary pseudo-allergen and hereditary urticaria.

Causes

Common Causes

Common causes of urticaria may include:[1][2][3][4]


 
 
 
 
The items:

❑ High frequency of cross-reactivity, such as avocado, banana and chestnut
❑ Moderate frequency of cross-reactivity such as apple, carrot, celery, kiwi, melon, papaya, potato and tomato
❑ Low frequency of cross-reactivity, such as apricot, cherry, fig, grape, hazelnut, mango, nectarine, passion fruit, peach, peanut, pear, plum, pineapple, soybean, strawberry and walnut.

 
 
 
 


References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Deacock SJ (2008). "An approach to the patient with urticaria". Clin Exp Immunol. 153 (2): 151–61. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2008.03693.x. PMC 2492902. PMID 18713139.
  2. ↑ Erben AM, Rodriguez JL, McCullough J, Ownby DR (1993). "Anaphylaxis after ingestion of beignets contaminated with Dermatophagoides farinae". J Allergy Clin Immunol. 92 (6): 846–9. doi:10.1016/0091-6749(93)90062-k. PMID 8258619.
  3. ↑ Beezhold DH, Sussman GL, Liss GM, Chang NS (1996). "Latex allergy can induce clinical reactions to specific foods". Clin Exp Allergy. 26 (4): 416–22. PMID 8732238.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Kayiran MA, Akdeniz N (2019). "Diagnosis and treatment of urticaria in primary care". North Clin Istanb. 6 (1): 93–99. doi:10.14744/nci.2018.75010. PMC 6526977 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 31180381.
  5. ↑ Rajan JP, Simon RA, Bosso JV (2014). "Prevalence of sensitivity to food and drug additives in patients with chronic idiopathic urticaria". J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2 (2): 168–71. doi:10.1016/j.jaip.2013.10.002. PMID 24607044.
  6. ↑ Wedi B, Kapp A (1999). "Helicobacter pylori infection and skin diseases". J Physiol Pharmacol. 50 (5): 753–76. PMID 10695557.
  7. ↑ Akashi R, Ishiguro N, Shimizu S, Kawashima M (2011). "Clinical study of the relationship between Helicobacter pylori and chronic urticaria and prurigo chronica multiformis: effectiveness of eradication therapy for Helicobacter pylori". J Dermatol. 38 (8): 761–6. doi:10.1111/j.1346-8138.2010.01106.x. PMID 21352335.
  8. ↑ Karaman U, Sener S, Calık S, Saşmaz S (2011). "[Investigation of microsporidia in patients with acute and chronic urticaria]". Mikrobiyol Bul. 45 (1): 168–73. PMID 21341171.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Zuberbier T (2003). "Urticaria". Allergy. 58 (12): 1224–34. doi:10.1046/j.1398-9995.2003.00327.x. PMID 14616095.
  10. ↑ Ros AM, Juhlin L, Michaëlsson G (1976). "A follow-up study of patients with recurrent urticaria and hypersensitivity to aspirin, benzoates and azo dyes". Br J Dermatol. 95 (1): 19–24. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1976.tb15532.x. PMID 952737.
  11. ↑ Morrow JD, Margolies GR, Rowland J, Roberts LJ (1991). "Evidence that histamine is the causative toxin of scombroid-fish poisoning". N Engl J Med. 324 (11): 716–20. doi:10.1056/NEJM199103143241102. PMID 1997836.
  12. ↑ Zuberbier T, Iffländer J, Semmler C, Henz BM (1996). "Acute urticaria: clinical aspects and therapeutic responsiveness". Acta Derm Venereol. 76 (4): 295–7. doi:10.2340/0001555576295297. PMID 8869688.
  13. ↑ Soter NA, Joshi NP, Twarog FJ, Zeiger RS, Rothman PM, Colten HR (1977). "Delayed cold-induced urticaria: a dominantly inherited disorder". J Allergy Clin Immunol. 59 (4): 294–7. doi:10.1016/0091-6749(77)90050-1. PMID 66242.
  14. ↑ Staubach P, Dechene M, Metz M, Magerl M, Siebenhaar F, Weller K; et al. (2011). "High prevalence of mental disorders and emotional distress in patients with chronic spontaneous urticaria". Acta Derm Venereol. 91 (5): 557–61. doi:10.2340/00015555-1109. PMID 21597672.

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