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{{Chlamydia infection}}
 
 
{{Taxobox
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgrey
| color = lightgrey
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| image = ChlamydiaTrachomatisEinschlusskörperchen.jpg
| image = ChlamydiaTrachomatisEinschlusskörperchen.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''C. trachomatis'' inclusion bodies (brown) in a McCoy cell culture.
| image_caption = C. trachomatis'' inclusion bodies (brown) in a McCoy cell culture - Source: https://www.cdc.gov/
| regnum = [[Bacterium|Bacteria]]
| regnum = [[Bacterium|Bacteria]]
| phylum = [[Chlamydiae]]
| phylum = [[Chlamydiae]]
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| familia = [[Chlamydiaceae]]
| familia = [[Chlamydiaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Chlamydia (bacterium)|Chlamydia]]''
| genus = ''[[Chlamydia (bacterium)|Chlamydia]]''
| species = '''''C. trachomatis'''''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| binomial = ''Chlamydia trachomatis''
| subdivision =
| binomial_authority = Busacca, [[1935]]
''[[Chlamydia muridarum]]''
''[[Chlamydophila pneumoniae]]''<br/>
''[[Chlamydophila psittaci]]''<br/>
''Chlamydophila suis''<br/>
''[[Chlamydia trachomatis]]''<br/>
}}
}}
'''''Chlamydia trachomatis''''' is one of three bacterial species in the genus [[Chlamydia]], family [[Chlamydiaceae]], class [[Chlamydiae]], phylum [[Chlamydiae]], domain [[Bacteria]]. C. trachomatis has only been found living inside the cells of humans, causing the following conditions:
__NOTOC__
 
'''To learn about other chlamydial infections caused by species other than ''C. trachomatis'', click [[Chlamydiae|here]].'''<br>
'''In men'''
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{AA}}
*[[Prostatitis]]
==Overview==
*[[Epididymitis]]
*'''''Chlamydia trachomatis''''', an [[Obligate intracellular parasite|obligate intracellular]] [[human pathogen]], is one of four [[bacteria]]l species in the [[genus]] ''[[Chlamydia (genus)|Chlamydia]]''.<ref name=Sherris>{{cite book | author = Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors) | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th | pages=463–70| publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8385-8529-9}}</ref>
 
*''C. trachomatis'' is a [[Gram-negative bacteria|Gram-negative]] bacterium, therefore its cell wall components retain the counter-stain [[safranin]] and appear pink under a light microscope.<ref name=MW>{{cite web |url=http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Chlamydia |title=Chlamydia |publisher=Department of Biology, Kenyon College |work=MicrobeWiki | date=2006-08-15 | accessdate=2008-10-27}}</ref> It is ovoid in shape.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Malhotra M, Sood S, Mukherjee A, Muralidhar S, Bala M |title=Genital Chlamydia trachomatis: an update |journal=Indian J. Med. Res. |volume=138 |issue=3 |date= September 2013|pages=303–16|pmid=24135174 |pmc=3818592 |doi= |url=}}</ref><!--review article -->
'''In women'''
*[[Cervicitis]] 
*[[Pelvic inflammatory disease]] (PID)
*[[Premature birth]]
*[[Ectopic pregnancy]]
*Pelvic pain, chronic or acute
*Newborn eye ([[trachoma]]) or lung infection
 
'''In both sexes'''
*[[Lymphogranuloma venereum]]
*[[Urethritis]]  
*[[Infertility]]
*[[Proctitis]] (rectal disease and bleeding)
*[[Reactive arthritis]]
*[[Trachoma]]
 
C. trachomatis has also been detected in some patients with temporomandibular joint ([[TMJ]]) disease.  It may be treated with any of several antibiotics:  azithromycin, erythromycin or doxycycline/tetracycline.
 
C. trachomatis was the first chlamydial agent discovered in humans.  It comprises two human biovars:  trachoma and lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV).  Many, but not all, C. trachomatis strains have an extrachromosomal plasmid.  Chlamydia species are readily identified and distinguished from other chlamydial species using DNA-based tests.  Most strains of C. trachomatis are recognized by monoclonal antibodies [mAbs] to epitopes in the VS4 region of  MOMP. However, these mAbs may also crossreact with the other two Chlamydia species, [[Chlamydia suis]] and [[Chlamydia muridarum]].
 
* [[Chlamydophila pneumoniae]]
* Chlamydophila pneumoniae
:* Pneumonia<ref>{{cite book | last = Bennett | first = John | title = Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases | publisher = Elsevier/Saunders | location = Philadelphia, PA | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1455748013 }}</ref>
 
::* Chlamydial Infections in Adolescents and Adults
:::* Preferred regimen : [[Doxycycline]] 100 mg PO bid for 7 days {{or}} [[Azithromycin]] 1 g PO in a single dose
:::* Alternative regimen (1):  [[ Erythromycin]] base 500  mg PO qid for 7 days {{or}}  [[Erythromycin]] ethylsuccinate 800 mg PO  qid for 7 days
:::* Alternative regimen (2): [[Levofloxacin]] 500 mg  PO qd for 7 days {{or}} [[Ofloxacin]] 300 mg PO bid for 7 days.  
 
::*Pregancy
:::* Preferred regimen :[[Azithromycin]] 1 g PO in a single dose
 
:::* Alternative regimen (1):[[ Amoxicillin]]  500  mg PO tid for 7 days
:::* Alternative regimen (2):[[ Erythromycin]] base 500  mg PO qid for 7 days {{or}}  [[Erythromycin]]base 250 mg PO  qid for 14 days
:::* Alternative regimen (3):[[ Erythromycin]]  ethylsuccinate 800  mg PO qid for 7 days {{or}}  [[Erythromycin]] ethylsuccinate 400 mg PO four qid for 14days
 
::* Chlamydial infection among neonates
::*Ophthalmia Neonatorum
:::* Preferred regimen :[[ Erythromycin]]  base or ethylsuccinate ,PO 50 mg/kg/ day divided into 4 doses daily for 14 days
:::* Alternative regimen : [[Azithromycin ]]suspension, PO 20 mg/kg /day qd for 3 days
 
::*Infant Pneumonia
:::* Preferred regimen :[[ Erythromycin]]  base or ethylsuccinate PO 50 mg/kg/ day divided into 4 doses daily for 14 days
:::* Alternative regimen : [[Azithromycin ]]suspension, PO 20 mg/kg /day qd for 3 days
 
::* Chlamydial infection among infants and childern
 
::* Infants and childern who weigh < 45 kg
:::* Preferred regimen :[[ Erythromycin]]  base or ethylsuccinate PO 50 mg/kg/ day divided into 4 doses daily for 14 days
::* Infants and childern who weigh >45 kg but who are aged <8 years
:::* Preferred regimen :[[Azithromycin]] 1 g PO in a single dose
::* Infants and childern aged  >8 years
:::* Preferred regimen :[[Azithromycin]] 1 g PO in a single dose {{or}} [[Doxycycline]] 100 mg PO bid for 7 days


*''C. trachomatis'' includes three human [[biovar]]s, based on variations in the major outer [[membrane protein]] (MOMP):
:*[[serovar]]s Ab, B, Ba, or C — cause [[trachoma]]: infection of the eyes, which can lead to blindness
:*serovars D-K — cause [[urethritis]], [[pelvic inflammatory disease]], [[ectopic pregnancy]], neonatal [[pneumonia]], and neonatal [[conjunctivitis]]
:*serovars L1, L2 and L3 — [[lymphogranuloma venereum]] (LGV)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fredlund H, Falk L, Jurstrand M, Unemo M |title=Molecular genetic methods for diagnosis and characterisation of ''Chlamydia trachomatis'' and ''Neisseria gonorrhoeae'': impact on epidemiological surveillance and interventions |journal=APMIS : acta pathologica, microbiologica, et immunologica Scandinavica |volume=112 |issue=11–12 |pages=771–84 |year=2004 |pmid=15638837 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0463.2004.apm11211-1205.x |url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0903-4641&date=2004&volume=112&issue=11-12&spage=771}}</ref>
::*The L2 serovar can be further differentiated into L2, L2', L2a, and L2b based on significant amino acid differences<ref name="pmid25870512">{{cite journal| author=Ceovic R, Gulin SJ| title=Lymphogranuloma venereum: diagnostic and treatment challenges. | journal=Infect Drug Resist | year= 2015 | volume= 8 | issue=  | pages= 39-47 | pmid=25870512 | doi=10.2147/IDR.S57540 | pmc=PMC4381887 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25870512  }} </ref>


*Many, but not all, ''C. trachomatis'' strains have an extrachromosomal [[plasmid]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Carlson JH, Whitmire WM, Crane DD |title=The ''Chlamydia trachomatis'' Plasmid Is a Transcriptional Regulator of Chromosomal Genes and a Virulence Factor |journal=Infection and immunity |volume=76 |issue=6 |pages=2273–83 |date=June 2008 |pmid=18347045 |pmc=2423098 |doi=10.1128/IAI.00102-08 |url=http://iai.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18347045|display-authors=etal}}</ref>


*Chlamydia can exchange DNA between its different strains, thus the evolution of new strains is common.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harris SR, Clarke IN, Seth-Smith HM |title=Whole-genome analysis of diverse ''Chlamydia trachomatis'' strains identifies phylogenetic relationships masked by current clinical typing |journal=Nat. Genet. |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=413–9, S1 |date=April 2012 |pmid=22406642 |pmc=3378690 |doi=10.1038/ng.2214 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>


==Identification==


''Chlamydia'' species are readily identified and distinguished from other Chlamydia species using DNA-based tests.


Most strains of ''C. trachomatis'' are recognized by [[monoclonal antibodies]] (mAbs) to [[epitopes]] in the VS4 region of MOMP.<ref name="pmid10678996">{{cite journal |author=Ortiz L, Angevine M, Kim SK, Watkins D, DeMars R |title=T-Cell Epitopes in Variable Segments of ''Chlamydia trachomatis'' Major Outer Membrane Protein Elicit Serovar-Specific Immune Responses in Infected Humans |journal=Infect. Immun. |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=1719–23 |year=2000 |pmid=10678996|doi=10.1128/IAI.68.3.1719-1723.2000 |pmc=97337}}</ref> However, these mAbs may also cross-react with two other ''Chlamydia'' species, ''[[Chlamydia suis|C. suis]]'' and ''[[Chlamydia muridarum|C. muridarum]]''.


==Life-cycle==
''Chlamydiae'' are [[obligate]] intracellular bacterial pathogens, which means they are unable to replicate outside of a host cell. However, to facilitate effective dissemination, these pathogens have evolved a distinct biphasic life cycle wherein they alternate between two functionally and morphologically distinct forms.
* The ''elementary body (EB)'' is infectious, but metabolically inert (much like a spore), and can survive for limited amounts of time in the extracellular milieu. Once the EB attaches to a susceptible host cell, it mediates its own internalization through pathogen-specified mechanisms (via type III secretion system) that allows for the recruitment of [[actin]] with subsequent engulfment of the bacterium.
* The internalized EB, within a membrane-bound compartment, immediately begins differentiation into the ''reticulate body (RB)''. RBs are metabolically active but non-infectious, and in many regards, resemble normal replicating [[bacteria]]. The intracellular bacteria rapidly modifies its membrane-bound compartment into the so-called chlamydial inclusion so as to prevent phagosome-lysosome fusion. The inclusion is thought to have no interactions with the endocytic pathway and apparently inserts itself into the exocytic pathway as it retains the ability to intercept sphingomyelin-containing vesicles.
*The mechanism by which the host cell protein is trafficked to the inclusion through the exocytic pathway is not fully understood. As the RBs replicate, the inclusion grows as well to accommodate the increasing numbers of organisms. Through unknown mechanisms, RBs begin a differentiation program back to the infectious EBs, which are released from the host cell to initiate a new round of infection. Because of their obligate intracellular nature, ''Chlamydiae'' have no tractable genetic system, unlike [[E. coli]], which makes ''Chlamydiae'' and related organisms difficult to investigate.


===Diseases caused by ''Chlamydia trachomatis''===
[[Image:SOA-conjunctivitis.jpg|thumb|Conjunctivitis due to chlamydia.]]
''[[Chlamydia trachomatis]]'' can cause the following conditions:<ref name="pmid2247702">{{cite journal| author=Paroli E, Franco E| title=[Oculogenital infections caused by Chlamydia trachomatis]. | journal=Recenti Prog Med | year= 1990 | volume= 81 | issue= 7-8 | pages= 539-48 | pmid=2247702 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2247702  }} </ref><ref name="pmid3719340">{{cite journal| author=Holstege G, van Ham JJ, Tan J| title=Afferent projections to the orbicularis oculi motoneuronal cell group. An autoradiographical tracing study in the cat. | journal=Brain Res | year= 1986 | volume= 374 | issue= 2 | pages= 306-20 | pmid=3719340 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3719340  }} </ref><ref name="pmid3818592">{{cite journal| author=Feltham N, Fahey D, Knight E| title=A growth inhibitory protein secreted by human diploid fibroblasts. Partial purification and characterization. | journal=J Biol Chem | year= 1987 | volume= 262 | issue= 5 | pages= 2176-9 | pmid=3818592 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3818592  }} </ref><ref name="pmid14681509">{{cite journal| author=Peipert JF| title=Clinical practice. Genital chlamydial infections. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2003 | volume= 349 | issue= 25 | pages= 2424-30 | pmid=14681509 | doi=10.1056/NEJMcp030542 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14681509  }} </ref>
* [[Cervicitis]]
* [[Conjunctivitis]]
* [[Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome]]
* [[Lymphogranuloma venereum]]
* [[Pelvic inflammatory disease]]
* [[Pneumonia]] in infants
* [[Reactive arthritis]]
* [[Urethritis]]
* Rectal infection ([[proctitis]])
* [[Prostatitis]]
* [[Ectopic pregnancy]]


==Gallery==
==Gallery==
<gallery>
<gallery>
Image: Chlamydia15.jpeg| Photomicrograph of Chlamydia trachomatis taken from a urethral scrape. <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Chlamydia15.jpeg| Photomicrograph of Chlamydia trachomatis taken from a urethral scrape. <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Chlamydia11.jpeg| McCoy cell monolayers with Chlamydia trachomatis inclusion bodies (200X mag). <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Chlamydia11.jpeg| McCoy cell monolayers with Chlamydia trachomatis inclusion bodies (200X mag). <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Line 94: Line 70:
Image: Chlamydia09.jpeg| Photomicrograph depicts HeLa cells infected with Type-A Chlamydia trachomatis (400X mag). <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Chlamydia09.jpeg| Photomicrograph depicts HeLa cells infected with Type-A Chlamydia trachomatis (400X mag). <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Chlamydia03.jpeg| Patient’s left eye with the upper lid retracted in order to reveal the inflamed conjunctival membrane lining the inside of both the upper and lower lids, due to what was determined to be a case of inclusion conjunctivitis caused by the bacterium, Chlamydia trachomatis. <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Chlamydia03.jpeg| Patient’s left eye with the upper lid retracted in order to reveal the inflamed conjunctival membrane lining the inside of both the upper and lower lids, due to what was determined to be a case of inclusion conjunctivitis caused by the bacterium, Chlamydia trachomatis. <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Chlamydia04.jpeg| <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
Image: Chlamydia04.jpeg| <SMALL><SMALL>''[http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).] ''<ref name=PHIL> {{Cite web | title = Public Health Image Library (PHIL) | url = http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp}}</ref></SMALL></SMALL>
</gallery>


==References==
{{Reflist|2}}


</gallery>
==Further reading==
{{cite journal|last1=Bellaminutti|first1=Serena|last2=Seracini|first2=Silva|last3=De Seta|first3=Francesco|last4=Gheit|first4=Tarik|last5=Tommasino|first5=Massimo|last6=Comar|first6=Manola|title=HPV and Chlamydia trachomatis Co-Detection in Young Asymptomatic Women from High Incidence Area for Cervical Cancer|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|date=November 2014|volume=86|issue=11|pages=1920–1925|doi=10.1002/jmv.24041|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmv.24041/abstract|accessdate=13 November 2014}}


==External links==
==External links==
 
* [http://www.chlamydiae.com Chlamydiae.com]
* Chlamydiae.com [http://www.chlamydiae.com/docs/Chlamydiales/genus_chlamydia.asp]
* {{GPnotebook|342556674}}
* {{GPnotebook|342556674}}
* [http://today.reuters.com/news/newsarticle.aspx?type=healthNews&storyid=2006-02-03T134331Z_01_N02383255_RTRUKOC_0_US-CHLAMYDIA.xml&rpc=22 article at reuters.com]
*{{cite web |title=''Chlamydia trachomatis'' |work=NCBI Taxonomy Browser |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=813 |id=813}}
[[Category:Chlamydiae]]
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Latest revision as of 20:54, 29 July 2020

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Chlamydia trachomatis
C. trachomatis inclusion bodies (brown) in a McCoy cell culture - Source: https://www.cdc.gov/
C. trachomatis inclusion bodies (brown) in a McCoy cell culture - Source: https://www.cdc.gov/
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Bacteria
Phylum: Chlamydiae
Order: Chlamydiales
Family: Chlamydiaceae
Genus: Chlamydia
Species

Chlamydia muridarum Chlamydophila pneumoniae
Chlamydophila psittaci
Chlamydophila suis
Chlamydia trachomatis

To learn about other chlamydial infections caused by species other than C. trachomatis, click here.
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Aysha Anwar, M.B.B.S[2]

Overview

  • The L2 serovar can be further differentiated into L2, L2', L2a, and L2b based on significant amino acid differences[5]
  • Many, but not all, C. trachomatis strains have an extrachromosomal plasmid.[6]
  • Chlamydia can exchange DNA between its different strains, thus the evolution of new strains is common.[7]

Identification

Chlamydia species are readily identified and distinguished from other Chlamydia species using DNA-based tests.

Most strains of C. trachomatis are recognized by monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to epitopes in the VS4 region of MOMP.[8] However, these mAbs may also cross-react with two other Chlamydia species, C. suis and C. muridarum.

Life-cycle

Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens, which means they are unable to replicate outside of a host cell. However, to facilitate effective dissemination, these pathogens have evolved a distinct biphasic life cycle wherein they alternate between two functionally and morphologically distinct forms.

  • The elementary body (EB) is infectious, but metabolically inert (much like a spore), and can survive for limited amounts of time in the extracellular milieu. Once the EB attaches to a susceptible host cell, it mediates its own internalization through pathogen-specified mechanisms (via type III secretion system) that allows for the recruitment of actin with subsequent engulfment of the bacterium.
  • The internalized EB, within a membrane-bound compartment, immediately begins differentiation into the reticulate body (RB). RBs are metabolically active but non-infectious, and in many regards, resemble normal replicating bacteria. The intracellular bacteria rapidly modifies its membrane-bound compartment into the so-called chlamydial inclusion so as to prevent phagosome-lysosome fusion. The inclusion is thought to have no interactions with the endocytic pathway and apparently inserts itself into the exocytic pathway as it retains the ability to intercept sphingomyelin-containing vesicles.
  • The mechanism by which the host cell protein is trafficked to the inclusion through the exocytic pathway is not fully understood. As the RBs replicate, the inclusion grows as well to accommodate the increasing numbers of organisms. Through unknown mechanisms, RBs begin a differentiation program back to the infectious EBs, which are released from the host cell to initiate a new round of infection. Because of their obligate intracellular nature, Chlamydiae have no tractable genetic system, unlike E. coli, which makes Chlamydiae and related organisms difficult to investigate.

Diseases caused by Chlamydia trachomatis

Conjunctivitis due to chlamydia.

Chlamydia trachomatis can cause the following conditions:[9][10][11][12]

Gallery

References

  1. ↑ Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 463–70. ISBN 0-8385-8529-9.
  2. ↑ "Chlamydia". MicrobeWiki. Department of Biology, Kenyon College. 2006-08-15. Retrieved 2008-10-27.
  3. ↑ Malhotra M, Sood S, Mukherjee A, Muralidhar S, Bala M (September 2013). "Genital Chlamydia trachomatis: an update". Indian J. Med. Res. 138 (3): 303–16. PMC 3818592. PMID 24135174.
  4. ↑ Fredlund H, Falk L, Jurstrand M, Unemo M (2004). "Molecular genetic methods for diagnosis and characterisation of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae: impact on epidemiological surveillance and interventions". APMIS : acta pathologica, microbiologica, et immunologica Scandinavica. 112 (11–12): 771–84. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0463.2004.apm11211-1205.x. PMID 15638837.
  5. ↑ Ceovic R, Gulin SJ (2015). "Lymphogranuloma venereum: diagnostic and treatment challenges". Infect Drug Resist. 8: 39–47. doi:10.2147/IDR.S57540. PMC 4381887. PMID 25870512.
  6. ↑ Carlson JH, Whitmire WM, Crane DD; et al. (June 2008). "The Chlamydia trachomatis Plasmid Is a Transcriptional Regulator of Chromosomal Genes and a Virulence Factor". Infection and immunity. 76 (6): 2273–83. doi:10.1128/IAI.00102-08. PMC 2423098. PMID 18347045.
  7. ↑ Harris SR, Clarke IN, Seth-Smith HM; et al. (April 2012). "Whole-genome analysis of diverse Chlamydia trachomatis strains identifies phylogenetic relationships masked by current clinical typing". Nat. Genet. 44 (4): 413–9, S1. doi:10.1038/ng.2214. PMC 3378690. PMID 22406642.
  8. ↑ Ortiz L, Angevine M, Kim SK, Watkins D, DeMars R (2000). "T-Cell Epitopes in Variable Segments of Chlamydia trachomatis Major Outer Membrane Protein Elicit Serovar-Specific Immune Responses in Infected Humans". Infect. Immun. 68 (3): 1719–23. doi:10.1128/IAI.68.3.1719-1723.2000. PMC 97337. PMID 10678996.
  9. ↑ Paroli E, Franco E (1990). "[Oculogenital infections caused by Chlamydia trachomatis]". Recenti Prog Med. 81 (7–8): 539–48. PMID 2247702.
  10. ↑ Holstege G, van Ham JJ, Tan J (1986). "Afferent projections to the orbicularis oculi motoneuronal cell group. An autoradiographical tracing study in the cat". Brain Res. 374 (2): 306–20. PMID 3719340.
  11. ↑ Feltham N, Fahey D, Knight E (1987). "A growth inhibitory protein secreted by human diploid fibroblasts. Partial purification and characterization". J Biol Chem. 262 (5): 2176–9. PMID 3818592.
  12. ↑ Peipert JF (2003). "Clinical practice. Genital chlamydial infections". N Engl J Med. 349 (25): 2424–30. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp030542. PMID 14681509.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 "Public Health Image Library (PHIL)".

Further reading

Bellaminutti, Serena; Seracini, Silva; De Seta, Francesco; Gheit, Tarik; Tommasino, Massimo; Comar, Manola (November 2014). "HPV and Chlamydia trachomatis Co-Detection in Young Asymptomatic Women from High Incidence Area for Cervical Cancer". Journal of Medical Virology. 86 (11): 1920–1925. doi:10.1002/jmv.24041. Retrieved 13 November 2014.

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