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| {{Taxobox
| | #redirect [[Listeria monocytogenes]] |
| | color = lightgrey <!-- Please read [[WP:Taxobox usage#Color]] before making any changes to the taxobox color. -->
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| | name = ''Listeria''
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| | image =Listeria monocytogenes PHIL 2287 lores.jpg
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| | image_width = 240px
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| | image_caption = [[Scanning electron microscope|Scanning electron micrograph]] of ''Listeria monocytogenes''.
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| | regnum = [[Bacterium|Bacteria]]
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| | divisio = [[Firmicutes]]
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| | classis = [[Bacilli]]
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| | ordo = [[Bacillales]]
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| | familia = [[Listeriaceae]]
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| | genus = ''Listeria''
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| | genus_authority = [[Harvey Pirie|Pirie]] 1940
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| | subdivision_ranks = Species
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| | subdivision =
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| ''[[Listeria fleischmannii|L. fleischmannii]]''<br />
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| ''[[Listeria grayi|L. grayi]]''<br />
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| ''[[Listeria innocua|L. innocua]]''<br />
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| ''[[Listeria ivanovii|L. ivanovii]]''<br />
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| ''[[Listeria marthii|L. marthii]]''<br />
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| ''[[Listeria monocytogenes|L. monocytogenes]]''<br />
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| ''[[Listeria rocourtiae|L. rocourtiae]]''<br />
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| ''[[Listeria seeligeri|L. seeligeri]]''<br />
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| ''[[Listeria weihenstephanensis|L. weihenstephanensis]]''<br />
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| ''[[Listeria welshimeri|L. welshimeri]]''
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| }}
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| __NOTOC__
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| {{Listeriosis}}
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| {{About0|Listeriosis}}
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| {{CMG}}
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| ==Overview==
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| '''''Listeria''''' is a [[genus]] of [[bacteria]] that contains 10 species,<ref>Jones, D. 1992. Current classification of the genus Listeria. In: Listeria 1992. Abstracts of ISOPOL XI, Copenhagen, Denmark). p. 7-8. ocourt, J., P. Boerlin, F.Grimont, C. Jacquet, and J-C. Piffaretti. 1992. Assignment of Listeria grayi and Listeria murrayi to a single species, Listeria grayi, with a revised description of Listeria grayi. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 42:171-174.</ref><ref>Boerlin et al. 1992. L. ivanovii subsp. londoniensis subsp. novi. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 42:69-73. Jones, D., and H.P.R. Seeliger. 1986. International committee on systematic bacteriology. Subcommittee the taxonomy of Listeria. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 36:117-118.</ref> each containing two subspecies. Named after the English pioneer of sterile surgery [[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]], the genus received its current name in 1940. ''Listeria'' species are [[gram-positive]], [[Bacillus (shape)|rod-shaped]], [[Facultative anaerobic organism|facultatively anaerobic]], and [[Gram-positive|non-spore forming]].<ref name=Singleton>{{cite book | author = Singleton P| title = Bacteria in Biology, Biotechnology and Medicine | edition = 5th | publisher = Wiley | year = 1999 | pages= 444–454| isbn = 0-471-98880-4}}</ref> The major [[human pathogen]] in the ''Listeria'' genus is ''[[Listeria monocytogenes|L. monocytogenes]]''. It is usually the causative agent of the relatively rare bacterial disease, [[listeriosis]], a serious infection caused by eating food [[contamination|contaminated]] with the bacteria. The disease affects pregnant women, newborns, adults with weakened immune systems, and the elderly.
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| Listeriosis is a serious disease for humans; the overt form of the disease has a [[case-fatality rate]] of about 20 percent. The two main clinical manifestations are [[sepsis]] and [[meningitis]]. Meningitis is often complicated by [[encephalitis]], when it is known as [[meningoencephalitis]], a pathology that is unusual for bacterial infections. ''Listeria ivanovii'' is a pathogen of mammals, specifically [[ruminant]]s, and has rarely caused listeriosis in humans.<ref>Christelle Guillet, Olivier Join-Lambert, Alban Le Monnier, Alexandre Leclercq, Frédéric Mechaï, Marie-France Mamzer-Bruneel, Magdalena K. Bielecka, Mariela Scortti, Olivier Disson, Patrick Berche, José Vazquez-Boland, Olivier Lortholary, and Marc Lecuit. Human Listeriosis Caused by Listeria ivanovii. ''Emerg Infect Dis.'' 2010 January; 16(1): 136–138.</ref>
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| ==Background==
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| The first documented case of ''Listeria'' was in 1924. In the late 1920s, two researchers independently identified ''Listeria monocytogenes'' from animal outbreaks. They proposed the genus ''Listerella'' in honor of surgeon and early antiseptic advocate [[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]]; however, that name was already in use for a [[slime mold]] and a [[protozoa]]n. Eventually, the genus ''Listeria'' was proposed and accepted. All species within the ''Listeria'' genus are [[gram-positive]], [[Endospore|nonsporeforming]], [[catalase]]-positive rods. The genus ''Listeria'' was classified in the family Corynebacteriaceae through the seventh edition of ''[[Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology]]''. The [[16S ribosomal RNA|16S rRNA]] cataloging studies of Stackebrandt, et al. demonstrated that ''L. monocytogenes'' is a distinct taxon within the [[Lactobacillus-Bacillus]] branch of the bacterial phylogeny constructed by Wöse. In 2004, the genus was placed in the newly created Family [[Listeriaceae]]. The only other genus in the family is ''[[Brochothrix]]''.<ref>Elliot T. Ryser, Elmer H. Marth. ''Listeria, Listeriosis, and Food Safety''. Second edition. Elmer Marth. 1999.</ref>
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| The genus ''Listeria'' currently contains ten species: ''L. fleischmannii, L. grayi, L. innocua, L. ivanovii, L. marthii, [[L. monocytogenes]], L. rocourtiae, L. seeligeri, L. weihenstephanensis '' and ''L. welshimeri.'' ''Listeria dinitrificans'', previously thought to be part of the ''Listeria'' genus, was reclassified into the new genus ''[[Jonesia]]''.<ref name=collins>M. D. Collins, S. Wallbanks, D. J. Lane, J. Shah, R. Nietupskin, J. Smida, M. Dorsch and E. Stackebrandt. Phylogenetic Analysis of the Genus ''Listeria'' Based on Reverse Transcriptase Sequencing of 16S rRNA. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. April 1991 vol. 41 no. 2 240–246</ref> Under the microscope, ''Listeria'' species appear as small, Gram-positive rods, which are sometimes arranged in short chains. In direct smears, they may be [[Coccus|coccoid]], so they can be mistaken for [[streptococci]]. Longer cells may resemble [[corynebacteria]]. [[Flagella]] are produced at room temperature, but not at 37 °C. Hemolytic activity on blood agar has been used as a marker to distinguish ''L. monocytogenes'' among other ''Listeria'' species, but it is not an absolutely definitive criterion. Further biochemical characterization may be necessary to distinguish between the different species of ''Listeria''.
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| ''Listeria'' can be found in soil, which can lead to vegetable contamination. Animals can also be carriers. ''Listeria'' has been found in uncooked meats, uncooked vegetables, fruit such as [[cantaloupe]]s<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/sep/29/listeria-outbreak-us-cantaloupe-melons?newsfeed=true | location=London | work=The Guardian | title=Listeria outbreak expected to cause more deaths across US in coming weeks | date=29 September 2011}}</ref> and apples,<ref>{http://www.latimes.com/food/dailydish/la-dd-california-farm-massive-apple-recall-listeria-found-20150116-story.html}</ref> pasteurized or [[unpasteurized milk]], foods made from milk, and processed foods. Pasteurization and sufficient cooking kill ''Listeria''; however, contamination may occur after cooking and before packaging. For example, meat-processing plants producing ready-to-eat foods, such as hot dogs and deli meats, must follow extensive sanitation policies and procedures to prevent ''Listeria'' contamination.<ref name=rts4>{{cite web
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| | title =Controlling Listeria Contamination in Your Meat Processing Plant
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| | publisher =Government of Ontario
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| | date = 27 February 2007
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| | url =http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/food/inspection/meatinsp/controllinglisteria.htm
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| | accessdate =27 April 2010}}</ref> ''[[Listeria monocytogenes]]'' is commonly found in soil, stream water, sewage, plants, and food.<ref name=rts1>{{cite web
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| | last1 =Southwick
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| | first1 =F. S.
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| | author2 =D. L. Purich
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| | title =More About Listeria
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| | publisher =University of Florida Medical School
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| | url =http://www.med.ufl.edu/biochem/DLPURICH/morelist.html
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| | accessdate =7 March 2007
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| }}</ref> ''Listeria'' is responsible for [[listeriosis]], a rare but potentially lethal [[foodborne illness]]. The [[case fatality rate]] for those with a severe form of infection may approach 25%.<ref name=rts2>{{cite web
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| | title =Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology
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| | work =Listeria monocytogenes and Listeriosis
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| | publisher =Kenneth Todar University of Wisconsin-Madison Department of Biology
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| | year = 2003
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| | url =http://textbookofbacteriology.net/Listeria.html
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| | accessdate =7 March 2007}}</ref> (''[[Salmonellosis]]'', in comparison, has a mortality rate estimated at less than 1%.<ref name=rts3>{{cite web
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| | title =Statistics about Salmonella food poisoning
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| | publisher =WrongDiagnosis.com
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| | date = 27 February 2007
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| | url =http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/s/salmonella_food_poisoning/stats.htm
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| | accessdate =7 March 2007}}</ref>) Although ''Listeria monocytogenes'' has low infectivity, it is hardy and can grow in temperatures from 4 °C (39.2 °F) (the temperature of a refrigerator), to 37 °C (98.6 °F), (the body's internal temperature).<ref name=rts1/> Listeriosis is a serious illness, and the disease may manifest as meningitis, or affect newborns due to its ability to penetrate the endothelial layer of the [[placenta]].<ref name=rts2/>
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| ==Pathogenesis==
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| {{main|Listeria monocytogenes}}
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| ''Listeria'' uses the cellular machinery to move around inside the host cell: It induces directed polymerization of [[actin]] by the [[Actin assembly-inducing protein|ActA]] [[transmembrane protein]], thus pushing the bacterial cell around.<ref name=rts5>{{cite journal
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| | title =Trends in Microbiology
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| | work =How the Listeria monocytogenes ActA protein converts actin polymerization into a motile force
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| | publisher = Cell Press
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| | volume = 5
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| | pages = 272–276
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| |date=July 1997
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| | pmid=9234509
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| | doi=10.1016/S0966-842X(97)01048-2
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| | issue=7, number 7
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| | author=Smith, G. A.; Portnoy D. A.}}</ref>
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| ''Listeria monocytogenes'', for example, encodes virulence genes that are [[thermoregulate]]d. The expression of virulence factor is optimal at 39 °C, and is controlled by a transcriptional activator, PrfA, whose expression is thermoregulated by the [[PrfA thermoregulator UTR]] element. At low temperatures, the PrfA transcript is not translated due to [[Cis-regulatory element|structural elements]] near the ribosome binding site. As the bacteria infect the host, the temperature of the host melts the structure and allows translation initiation for the virulent genes.
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| The majority of ''Listeria'' bacteria are targeted by the [[immune system]] before they are able to cause [[infection]]. Those that escape the immune system's initial response, however, spread through intracellular mechanisms and are, therefore, guarded against circulating immune factors (AMI).<ref name=rts2/>
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| To invade, ''Listeria'' induces macrophage [[phagocytosis|phagocytic]] uptake by displaying D-galactose in their [[teichoic acid]]s that are then bound by the [[macrophage]]'s [[polysaccharide]] receptors. Other important adhesins are the [[internalin]]s.<ref name=rts3/> Once phagocytosed, the bacterium is encapsulated by the host cell's acidic [[phagolysosome]] organelle.<ref name=rts1/> ''Listeria'', however, escapes the phagolysosome by lysing the vacuole's entire membrane with secreted [[hemolysin]],<ref name=Tinley89>{{cite journal |author= Tinley, L. G. |year=1989|url=http://www.jcb.org/cgi/reprint/109/4/1597|title= Actin Filaments and the Growth, Movement, and Spread of the Intracellular Bacterial Parasite, ''Listeria monocytogenes'' |journal=The Journal of Cell Biology |volume=109 |pages=1597–1608|doi= 10.1083/jcb.109.4.1597|pmid= 2507553 | issue=4 Pt 1 | pmc=2115783 |display-authors= 1 |last2= Portnoy |first2=D. A.}}</ref> now characterized as the exotoxin [[listeriolysin O]].<ref name=rts1/> The bacteria then replicate inside the host cell's cytoplasm.<ref name=rts2/>
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| ''Listeria'' must then navigate to the cell's periphery to spread the infection to other cells. Outside the body, ''Listeria'' has [[flagella]]r-driven motility, sometimes described as a "tumbling motility". However, at 37 °C, flagella cease to develop and the bacterium instead usurps the host cell's [[cytoskeleton]] to move.<ref name=rts2/> ''Listeria'', inventively, polymerizes an [[actin]] tail or "comet",<ref name=Tinley89/> from actin monomers in the host's cytoplasm <ref name=rts4>{{cite web
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| | last =
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| | first =
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| | authorlink =
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| | title =Listeria
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| | work =
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| | publisher =MicrobeWiki.Kenyon.edu
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| | date = 16 August 2006
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| | url =http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Listeria&oldid=5472
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| | format =
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| | doi =.
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| | accessdate =7 March 2007}}</ref> with the promotion of virulence factor ActA.<ref name=rts2/> The comet forms in a polar manner <ref name=Laine98>{{cite journal |author=Laine R. O., Phaneuf K. L., Cunningham C. C., Kwiatkowski D., Azuma T., Southwick F. S. |title=Gelsolin, a protein that caps the barbed ends and severs actin filaments, enhances the actin-based motility of ''Listeria monocytogenes'' in host cells |journal=Infect. Immun. |volume=66 |issue=8 |pages=3775–82 |date=1 August 1998|pmid=9673261 |pmc=108414 |url=http://iai.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9673261 }}</ref> and aids the bacteria's migration to the host cell's outer membrane. Gelsolin, an actin filament severing protein, localizes at the tail of ''Listeria'' and accelerates the bacterium's motility.<ref name=Laine98/> Once at the cell surface, the actin-propelled ''Listeria'' pushes against the cell's membrane to form protrusions called [[filopod]]s<ref name=rts1/> or "rockets". The protrusions are guided by the cell's leading edge <ref>{{cite journal |author=Galbraith C. G., Yamada K. M., Galbraith J. A. |title=Polymerizing actin fibers position integrins primed to probe for adhesion sites |journal=Science |volume=315 |issue=5814 |pages=992–5 |date=February 2007 |pmid=17303755 |doi=10.1126/science.1137904 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17303755}}</ref> to contact adjacent cells, which then engulf the listeria rocket and the process is repeated, perpetuating the infection.<ref name=rts2/> Once phagocytosed, the bacterium is never again extracellular: it is an intracytoplasmic parasite <ref name=Tinley89/> like ''[[Shigella flexneri]]'' and ''[[Rickettsia]]''.<ref name=rts2/>
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| ==Epidemiology==
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| The [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] has published a list of foods that have sometimes caused outbreaks of ''Listeria'': hot dogs, deli meats, [[pasteurized]] or unpasteurized milk, cheeses (particularly soft-ripened cheeses like feta, Brie, Camembert, blue-veined, or Mexican-style ''queso blanco''), raw and cooked poultry, raw meats, ice cream, raw fruit<ref>[http://abc7news.com/food/granny-smith-gala-apples-recalled-due-to-listeria/478302/ "Granny Smith, Gala apples recalled due to listeria" Bay City News Friday, January 16, 2015]</ref> /vegetables, and smoked fish.<ref>[[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] – [http://www.cspinet.org/nah/10_99/fsg_meet_the_bugs.htm Nutrition Action Healthletter – Food Safety Guide – Meet the Bugs]</ref>
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| Improperly handled [[cantaloupe]] was implicated in the [[2011 United States listeriosis outbreak|outbreak of listeriosis from Jensen Farms in Colorado]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Deaths From Cantaloupe Listeria Rise |author=William Neuman |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/28/business/deaths-from-cantaloupe-listeria-rises.html?_r=1 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 27, 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref> and the Australian company GMI Food Wholesalers was fined A$236,000 for providing ''Listeria monocytogenes''-contaminated [[Sandwich wrap|chicken wraps]] to the airline [[Virgin Blue]].<ref>{{cite news |title=$236,000 fine for foul flight chicken |author=Josephine Tovey |url=http://www.smh.com.au/travel/travel-incidents/236000-fine-for-foul-flight-chicken-20111115-1nh99.html |newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |date=November 16, 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref> Caramel apples have also been cited as a source of listeria infections which hospitalized twenty-six people, including five who died.<ref>https://www.yahoo.com/health/warning-prepackaged-caramel-apples-linked-to-5-105611703552.html</ref><ref>http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/12/19/caramel-apples-listeria-outbreak/20636809/</ref>
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| ==Prevention==
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| Preventing listeriosis as a food illness requires effective sanitation of food contact surfaces.<ref>{{cite news | first= | last= |author2=The Canadian Press | title=Maple Leaf Foods assessing Listeria-killing chemical | date=2008-10-12 | publisher=ctvglobemedia | url =http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20081012/maple_leaf_foods_081012/20081012?hub=Health | work =ctv.ca | pages = | accessdate =15 October 2008 | language = }}</ref> [[Ethanol|Alcohol]] is an effective topical sanitizer against ''Listeria''. [[Quaternary ammonium]] can be used in conjunction with alcohol as a food contact safe sanitizer with increased duration of the sanitizing action. Refrigerated foods in the home should be kept below 4 °C (39.2 °F) to discourage bacterial growth.
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| ==Treatment==
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| In non-invasive [[listeriosis]], the bacteria will often remain within the digestive tract, causing mild symptoms lasting only a few days and requiring only supportive care. Muscle pain and fever in mild cases can be treated with over-the-counter pain relievers, and diarrhea and gastroenteritis can be treated with over-the-counter medications if needed.<ref name="cdc">{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/listeria/+ |title=CDC - Listeria - Home |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
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| In invasive [[listeriosis]], the bacteria has spread to the bloodstream and central nervous system. Treatment includes intravenous delivery of high-dose [[antimicrobials]] and in-patient hospital care.<ref name="cdc" /> Duration of hospital care will vary depending on how widespread the infection is, but is usually no less than 2 weeks.<ref name="cdc" /> [[Ampicillin]], [[penicillin]], or [[amoxicillin]] are often given for invasive listeriosis, and [[gentamicin]] is often added in patients with compromised immune systems.<ref name="temple">{{cite journal |author=Temple, M. E.; Nahata, M. C. |title=Treatment of listeriosis |journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=656–61 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10852095 |doi= 10.1345/aph.19315|url=}}</ref> [[Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole]], [[vancomycin]], and [[fluoroquinolones]] can be used in cases of allergy to penicillin.<ref name="temple" /> For treatment to be effective, the antibiotic must penetrate the host cell and bind to [[Penicillin binding proteins|penicillin-binding protein 3]] (PBP3). [[Cephalosporins]] are not effective for treatment of listeriosis.<ref name="temple" />
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| Prompt treatment of listeria infections in pregnancy is critical to prevent the bacteria from infecting the fetus, and antibiotics may be given to pregnant women even in non-invasive listeriosis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/listeria-infection/DS00963/DSECTION=treatments-and-drugs+ |title=Listeria infection (listeriosis): Treatments and drugs - MayoClinic.com |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> These oral therapies in less severe cases can include amoxicillin or [[erythromycin]].<ref name="temple" /> In addition to [[antibiotic therapy]], it is often recommended that infected pregnant women receive [[ultrasounds]] to monitor the health of the fetus. Higher doses of antibiotics are sometimes given to pregnant women to ensure penetration of the umbilical cord and placenta.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Janakiraman V |title=Listeriosis in pregnancy: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention |journal=Rev Obstet Gynecol |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=179–85 |year=2008 |pmid=19173022 |pmc=2621056 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
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| Asymptomatic patients who have been exposed to listeria are not recommended for treatment. It is recommended that these patients be informed of the signs and symptoms of the disease and to return for medical care if symptoms present.<ref name="cdc" />
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| ==Research==
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| ''Listeria'' is an opportunistic pathogen: It is most prevalent in the elderly, pregnant mothers, and patients infected with HIV. With improved healthcare leading to a growing elderly population and extended life expectancies for HIV infected patients, physicians are more likely to encounter this otherwise-rare infection (only 7 per 1,000,000 healthy people are infected with virulent ''Listeria'' each year).<ref name=rts1/> Better understanding the cell biology of ''Listeria'' infections, including relevant virulence factors, may lead to better treatments for listeriosis and other intracytoplasmic parasite infections. Researchers are now investigating the use of ''Listeria'' as a cancer vaccine, taking advantage of its "ability to induce potent innate and adaptive immunity."<ref name=rts4/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Greenemeier L |title=Recruiting a Dangerous Foe to Fight Cancer and HIV |journal=Scientific American |date=May 21, 2008 |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=recruiting-a-dangerous-foe&sc=rss}}</ref>
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| ==See also==
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| * [[2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak]]
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| * [[2011 United States listeriosis outbreak]]
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| * [[List of foodborne illness outbreaks]]
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| ==Notes==
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| {{Reflist|2}}
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| ==References==
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| * {{cite journal | author = Abrishami S. H., Tall B. D., Bruursema T. J., Epstein P. S., Shah D. B. | year = 1994 | title = Bacterial adherence and viability on cutting board surfaces | url = | journal = [[Journal of Food Safety]] | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 153–172 | doi = 10.1111/j.1745-4565.1994.tb00591.x }}
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| * {{cite journal | author = Zhifa Liu, Changhe Yuan, Stephen B. Pruett | year = 2012| title = Machine learning analysis of the relationship between changes in immunological parameters and changes in resistance to ''Listeria monocytogenes'': a new approach for risk assessment and systems immunology | url = | journal = Toxicol Sci. | volume = 129 | issue = | pages = 1:57–73 | doi=10.1093/toxsci/kfs201}}
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| * {{cite journal | author = Allerberger F | year = 2003 | title = Listeria: growth, phenotypic differentiation and molecular microbiology | url = | journal = FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology | volume = 35 | issue = 3| pages = 183–189 | doi = 10.1016/S0928-8244(02)00447-9 | pmid = 12648835 }}
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| * {{cite journal | author = Bayles D. O., Wilkinson B. J. | year = 2000 | title = Osmoprotectants and cryoprotectants for ''Listeria monocytogenes'' | url = | journal = Letters in Applied Microbiology | volume = 30 | issue = 1| pages = 23–27 | doi = 10.1046/j.1472-765x.2000.00646.x | pmid = 10728555 }}
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| * {{cite journal | author = Bredholt S., Maukonen J., Kujanpaa K., Alanko T., Olofson U., Husmark U., Sjoberg A. M., Wirtanen G. | year = 1999 | title = Microbial methods for assessment of cleaning and disinfection of food-processing surfaces cleaned in a low-pressure system | url = | journal = European Food Research and Technology | volume = 209 | issue = 2| pages = 145–152 | doi = 10.1007/s002170050474 }}
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| * {{cite journal | author = Chae M. S., Schraft H. | year = 2000 | title = Comparative evaluation of adhesion and biofilm formation of different ''Listeria monocytogenes'' strains | url = | journal = [[International Journal of Food Microbiology]] | volume = 62 | issue = | pages = 103–111 | doi = 10.1016/S0168-1605(00)00406-2 }}
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| * {{cite journal | author = Chen Y. H., Jackson K. M., Chea F. P., Schaffner D. W. | year = 2001 | title = Quantification and variability analysis of bacterial cross-contamination rates in common food service tasks | url = | journal = [[Journal of Food Protection]] | volume = 64 | issue = | pages = 72–80 }}
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| * {{cite journal | author = Davidson C. A., Griffith C. J., Peters A. C., Fieding L. M. | year = 1999 | title = Evaluation of two methods for monitoring surface cleanliness ñ ATP bioluminescence and traditional hygiene swabbing | url = | journal = Luminescence | volume = 14 | issue = 1| pages = 33–38 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1522-7243(199901/02)14:1<33::AID-BIO514>3.0.CO;2-I | pmid = 10398558 }}
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| * Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2005. [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.html "Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook: The ìBad Bug Book"] ''Food and Drug Administration'', College Park, MD. Accessed: 1 March 2006.
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| * {{cite journal | author = Foschino R., Picozzi C., Civardi A., Bandini M., Faroldi P. | year = 2003 | title = Comparison of surface sampling methods and cleanability assessment of stainless steel surfaces subjected or not to shot peening | url = | journal = [[Journal of Food Engineering ]]| volume = 60 | issue = 4| pages = 375–381 | doi = 10.1016/S0260-8774(03)00060-8 }}
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| * Frank, J. F. 2001. "Microbial attachment to food and food contact surfaces". In: ''Advances in Food and Nutrition Research'', Vol. 43. ed. Taylor, S. L. San Diego, CA. Academic Press., Inc. 320–370.
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| * {{cite journal | author = Gasanov U., Hughes D., Hansbro P. M. | year = 2005 | title = Methods for the isolation and identification of ''Listeria'' spp. and ''Listeria monocytogenes'': a review | url = | journal = FEMS Microbiology Reviews | volume = 29 | issue = 5| pages = 851–875 | doi = 10.1016/j.femsre.2004.12.002 | pmid = 16219509 }}
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| * {{cite journal | author = Gombas D. E., Chen Y., Clavero R. S., Scott V. N. | year = 2003 | title = Survey of ''Listeria monocytogenes'' in ready-to-eat foods | url = | journal = Journal of Food Protection | volume = 66 | issue = 4| pages = 559–569 | pmid = 12696677 }}
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| ==External links==
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| {{wikispecies}}
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| * {{DMOZ|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Infectious_Diseases/Bacterial/Listeriosis/|Listeriosis}}
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| * [http://patricbrc.org/portal/portal/patric/Taxon?cType=taxon&cId=1637 Listeria] genome at PATRIC, funded by the [[National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases]]
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| {{Gram-positive firmicutes diseases}}
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| {{Consumer Food Safety}}
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| [[Category:Gram-positive bacteria]]
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| [[Category:Listeriaceae]]
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