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{{CMG}}{{AE}}{{MD}} | {{Vulvar cancer}} | ||
{{CMG}}{{AE}} {{sali}} {{MD}} | |||
==Overview== | |||
Vulvar cancer may be classified according to histology:[[Squamous cell carcinoma]], [[Basal cell carcinoma]], vulvar [[malignant melanoma]] Vulvar [[sarcoma]], Vulvar [[Paget disease]], [[Bartholin gland]] [[carcinoma]]. | |||
==Classification== | |||
Histologic subtypes of vulvar cancer include:<ref name="xyz">{{cite book | last = Hoffman | first = Barbara | title = Williams gynecology | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | year = 2012 | isbn = 9780071716727 }}</ref> | |||
* [[Squamous cell carcinoma]] | |||
** [[Verrucous carcinoma]] | |||
* [[Basal cell carcinoma]] | |||
* Vulvar [[malignant melanoma]] | |||
* Vulvar [[sarcoma]] | |||
* Vulvar [[Paget disease]] | |||
* [[Bartholin gland]] [[carcinoma]] | |||
==Squamous cell carcinoma== | |||
*Seventy-five percent or more of vulvar malignancies are squamous cell carcinomas<ref name="pmid24011936">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schuurman MS, van den Einden LC, Massuger LF, Kiemeney LA, van der Aa MA, de Hullu JA |title=Trends in incidence and survival of Dutch women with vulvar squamous cell carcinoma |journal=Eur. J. Cancer |volume=49 |issue=18 |pages=3872–80 |date=December 2013 |pmid=24011936 |doi=10.1016/j.ejca.2013.08.003 |url=}}</ref>. There are two subtypes, both of which usually occur on the labia or [[vestibule]]:<ref name="pmid18980209">{{cite journal |vauthors=Saraiya M, Watson M, Wu X, King JB, Chen VW, Smith JS, Giuliano AR |title=Incidence of in situ and invasive vulvar cancer in the US, 1998-2003 |journal=Cancer |volume=113 |issue=10 Suppl |pages=2865–72 |date=November 2008 |pmid=18980209 |doi=10.1002/cncr.23759 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*The keratinizing, differentiated, or simplex type is more common. This occurs in older women and is not related to [[human papillomavirus]] ([[HPV]]) infection, but is associated with vulvar dystrophies such as lichen sclerosus and, in developing countries, chronic venereal [[granulomatous]] disease. | |||
*The classic, warty, or Bowenoid type is predominantly associated with HPV 16, 18, and 33, and found in younger women<ref name="pmid9351758">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hildesheim A, Han CL, Brinton LA, Kurman RJ, Schiller JT |title=Human papillomavirus type 16 and risk of preinvasive and invasive vulvar cancer: results from a seroepidemiological case-control study |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=748–54 |date=November 1997 |pmid=9351758 |doi=10.1016/S0029-7844(97)00467-5 |url=}}</ref>.These women tend to present with early-stage disease.<ref name="pmid11748983">{{cite journal |vauthors=Al-Ghamdi A, Freedman D, Miller D, Poh C, Rosin M, Zhang L, Gilks CB |title=Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma in young women: a clinicopathologic study of 21 cases |journal=Gynecol. Oncol. |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=94–101 |date=January 2002 |pmid=11748983 |doi=10.1006/gyno.2001.6466 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*There is evidence that some high-grade vulvar and vaginal intraepithelial neoplasias are monoclonal lesions derived from high-grade or malignant cervical disease<ref name="pmid16368943">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vinokurova S, Wentzensen N, Einenkel J, Klaes R, Ziegert C, Melsheimer P, Sartor H, Horn LC, Höckel M, von Knebel Doeberitz M |title=Clonal history of papillomavirus-induced dysplasia in the female lower genital tract |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=97 |issue=24 |pages=1816–21 |date=December 2005 |pmid=16368943 |doi=10.1093/jnci/dji428 |url=}}</ref>. | |||
*Presence of the cervix does not appear to be necessary for oncogenic HPV to infect the genital tract. | |||
===Verrucous carcinoma=== | |||
*Verrucous vulvar carcinoma is a variant of [[squamous cell carcinoma]] that has distinctive features. | |||
*Although cauliflower-like in appearance, it is differentiated from [[squamous cell carcinoma]] with a verrucous configuration. | |||
*Biopsy shows papillary fronds without the central connective tissue core typical of [[condylomata acuminata]]. | |||
*The lesion grows slowly and rarely metastasizes to [[lymph nodes]], but it may be locally destructive. | |||
== | ==Basal cell carcinoma== | ||
== | *[[Basal cell carcinoma]] is a squamous histology, but is distinct from squamous cell vulvar carcinoma. | ||
*Approximately 2 to 8 percent of vulvar cancers are basal cell cancers, and 2 percent of basal cell cancers occur on the vulva<ref name="pmid15790457">{{cite journal |vauthors=de Giorgi V, Salvini C, Massi D, Raspollini MR, Carli P |title=Vulvar basal cell carcinoma: retrospective study and review of literature |journal=Gynecol. Oncol. |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=192–4 |date=April 2005 |pmid=15790457 |doi=10.1016/j.ygyno.2004.12.008 |url=}}</ref>. | |||
*Basal cell vulvar carcinoma usually affects postmenopausal white women and may be locally invasive, although it is usually non-metastasizing <ref name="pmid9351761">{{cite journal |vauthors=Benedet JL, Miller DM, Ehlen TG, Bertrand MA |title=Basal cell carcinoma of the vulva: clinical features and treatment results in 28 patients |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=765–8 |date=November 1997 |pmid=9351761 |doi=10.1016/S0029-7844(97)00416-X |url=}}</ref>. | |||
*The typical appearance is that of a "rodent" ulcer with rolled edges and central ulceration. | |||
*It is often asymptomatic, but [[pruritus]], bleeding, or pain may occur. | |||
*Basal cell carcinomas are associated with a high incidence of antecedent or concomitant [[malignancy]] elsewhere in the body<ref name="pmid9351761">{{cite journal |vauthors=Benedet JL, Miller DM, Ehlen TG, Bertrand MA |title=Basal cell carcinoma of the vulva: clinical features and treatment results in 28 patients |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=765–8 |date=November 1997 |pmid=9351761 |doi=10.1016/S0029-7844(97)00416-X |url=}}</ref>. | |||
==Melanoma== | |||
*Melanoma is the second most common vulvar cancer histology, accounting for approximately 2 to 10 percent of primary vulvar neoplasms<ref name="pmid15589604">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stang A, Streller B, Eisinger B, Jöckel KH |title=Population-based incidence rates of malignant melanoma of the vulva in Germany |journal=Gynecol. Oncol. |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=216–21 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15589604 |doi=10.1016/j.ygyno.2004.09.052 |url=}}</ref>. | |||
*Melanoma of the vulva occurs predominantly in postmenopausal, white, non-Hispanic women, at a median age of 68 years<ref name="pmid17666603">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sugiyama VE, Chan JK, Shin JY, Berek JS, Osann K, Kapp DS |title=Vulvar melanoma: a multivariable analysis of 644 patients |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=110 |issue=2 Pt 1 |pages=296–301 |date=August 2007 |pmid=17666603 |doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000271209.67461.91 |url=}}</ref>. By contrast, cutaneous melanomas presenting at other sites often develop before age 45. | |||
*Vulvar melanoma is usually a pigmented lesion, but amelanotic lesions also occur. | |||
*Most arise de novo on the [[clitoris]] or [[labia minora]], but can also develop within preexisting junctional or compound nevi. | |||
==Sarcoma== | |||
*Soft tissue sarcomas (including leiomyosarcomas, rhabdomyosarcomas, liposarcomas, angiosarcomas, neurofibrosarcomas, epithelioid sarcomas, and undifferentiated/unclassified soft tissue sarcomas) constitute 1 to 2 percent of vulvar malignancies. The prognosis is generally poor<ref name="pmid28634755">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nasioudis D, Alevizakos M, Chapman-Davis E, Witkin SS, Holcomb K |title=Rhabdomyosarcoma of the lower female genital tract: an analysis of 144 cases |journal=Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. |volume=296 |issue=2 |pages=327–334 |date=August 2017 |pmid=28634755 |doi=10.1007/s00404-017-4438-1 |url=}}</ref>. | |||
*As with soft tissue sarcomas located elsewhere on the extremities and trunk, high-grade lesions that are larger than 5 cm in diameter, with infiltrating margins and a high mitotic rate, are those most likely to recur. | |||
==Paget disease of the vulva== | |||
*[[Extramammary Paget disease]], an intraepithelial adenocarcinoma, accounts for less than 1 percent of all vulvar malignancies<ref name="pmid10739709">{{cite journal |vauthors=Parker LP, Parker JR, Bodurka-Bevers D, Deavers M, Bevers MW, Shen-Gunther J, Gershenson DM |title=Paget's disease of the vulva: pathology, pattern of involvement, and prognosis |journal=Gynecol. Oncol. |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=183–9 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10739709 |doi=10.1006/gyno.2000.5741 |url=}}</ref>. Most patients are in their 60s and 70s and white. | |||
*Pruritus is the most common symptom, present in 70 percent of patients. Vulvar Paget disease is similar in appearance to Paget disease of the breast. The lesion has an eczematoid appearance; it is well-demarcated and has slightly raised edges and a red background, often dotted with small, pale islands. It is usually multifocal and may occur anywhere on the vulva, mons, perineum/perianal area, or inner thigh. | |||
*Diagnosis is based upon characteristic histopathology. Vulvar biopsy should be performed in patients with suspicious lesions, including those with persistent pruritic eczematous lesions that fail to resolve within six weeks of appropriate anti-eczema therapy. | |||
*Invasive adenocarcinomas may be present within or beneath the surface lesion<ref name="pmid9914572">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fanning J, Lambert HC, Hale TM, Morris PC, Schuerch C |title=Paget's disease of the vulva: prevalence of associated vulvar adenocarcinoma, invasive Paget's disease, and recurrence after surgical excision |journal=Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. |volume=180 |issue=1 Pt 1 |pages=24–7 |date=January 1999 |pmid=9914572 |doi= |url=}}</ref>. | |||
*Women with Paget disease of the vulva should also be evaluated for the possibility of synchronous neoplasms, as approximately 20 to 30 percent of these patients have a noncontiguous carcinoma<ref name="pmid2162317">{{cite journal |vauthors=Feuer GA, Shevchuk M, Calanog A |title=Vulvar Paget's disease: the need to exclude an invasive lesion |journal=Gynecol. Oncol. |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=81–9 |date=July 1990 |pmid=2162317 |doi= |url=}}</ref>. | |||
1. | ==Bartholin gland carcinoma== | ||
*[[Bartholin gland]] carcinoma comprises approximately 0.1 to 5 percent of all vulvar carcinomas and 0.001 percent of all female [[malignancies]]<ref name="pmid8626099">{{cite journal |vauthors=DePasquale SE, McGuinness TB, Mangan CE, Husson M, Woodland MB |title=Adenoid cystic carcinoma of Bartholin's gland: a review of the literature and report of a patient |journal=Gynecol. Oncol. |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=122–5 |date=April 1996 |pmid=8626099 |doi=10.1006/gyno.1996.0109 |url=}}</ref>. | |||
*The incidence of Bartholin gland carcinoma in one series was 0.023 per 100,000 woman-years in premenopausal women<ref name="pmid8559540">{{cite journal |vauthors=Visco AG, Del Priore G |title=Postmenopausal bartholin gland enlargement: a hospital-based cancer risk assessment |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=87 |issue=2 |pages=286–90 |date=February 1996 |pmid=8559540 |doi= |url=}}</ref>. | |||
*The incidence of [[Bartholin gland]] carcinoma is highest among women in their 60s. | |||
*Most affected women do not have a past history of benign [[Bartholin gland]] disorders. | |||
*Cancers arising in the [[Bartholin gland]] are most often [[adenocarcinomas]] or [[squamous cell carcinomas]], but transitional cell carcinomas, adenosquamous, and adenoid cystic carcinomas may also develop. Most primary adenocarcinomas of the vulva occur in the [[Bartholin gland|Bartholin gland.]]<ref name="pmid8384409">{{cite journal |vauthors=Felix JC, Cote RJ, Kramer EE, Saigo P, Goldman GH |title=Carcinomas of Bartholin's gland. Histogenesis and the etiological role of human papillomavirus |journal=Am. J. Pathol. |volume=142 |issue=3 |pages=925–33 |date=March 1993 |pmid=8384409 |pmc=1886794 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
*Only the squamous cell carcinomas of the Bartholin gland are related to HPV infection<ref name="pmid8384409">{{cite journal |vauthors=Felix JC, Cote RJ, Kramer EE, Saigo P, Goldman GH |title=Carcinomas of Bartholin's gland. Histogenesis and the etiological role of human papillomavirus |journal=Am. J. Pathol. |volume=142 |issue=3 |pages=925–33 |date=March 1993 |pmid=8384409 |pmc=1886794 |doi= |url=}}</ref>. | |||
: | *Metastatic disease is common in cancers of the [[Bartholin gland]] because of the rich [[vascular]] and lymphatic network in this area. In one series of 11 women with [[Bartholin gland]] cancer, 55 percent developed recurrent disease, and 67 percent were alive at five years<ref name="pmid11531274">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cardosi RJ, Speights A, Fiorica JV, Grendys EC, Hakam A, Hoffman MS |title=Bartholin's gland carcinoma: a 15-year experience |journal=Gynecol. Oncol. |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=247–51 |date=August 2001 |pmid=11531274 |doi=10.1006/gyno.2001.6304 |url=}}</ref>. | ||
2. | |||
==References== | |||
: | {{Reflist}} | ||
: | [[Category:Types of cancer]] | ||
: | [[Category:Gynecology]] | ||
[[Category:Up-To-Date]] | |||
[[Category:Oncology]] | |||
[[Category:Medicine]] | |||
[[Category:Gynecology]] | |||
Latest revision as of 21:21, 1 May 2019
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Vulvar cancer classification On the Web |
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American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Vulvar cancer classification |
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Risk calculators and risk factors for Vulvar cancer classification |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Syed Musadiq Ali M.B.B.S.[2] Monalisa Dmello, M.B,B.S., M.D. [3]
Overview
Vulvar cancer may be classified according to histology:Squamous cell carcinoma, Basal cell carcinoma, vulvar malignant melanoma Vulvar sarcoma, Vulvar Paget disease, Bartholin gland carcinoma.
Classification
Histologic subtypes of vulvar cancer include:[1]
- Squamous cell carcinoma
- Basal cell carcinoma
- Vulvar malignant melanoma
- Vulvar sarcoma
- Vulvar Paget disease
- Bartholin gland carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma
- Seventy-five percent or more of vulvar malignancies are squamous cell carcinomas[2]. There are two subtypes, both of which usually occur on the labia or vestibule:[3]
- The keratinizing, differentiated, or simplex type is more common. This occurs in older women and is not related to human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, but is associated with vulvar dystrophies such as lichen sclerosus and, in developing countries, chronic venereal granulomatous disease.
- The classic, warty, or Bowenoid type is predominantly associated with HPV 16, 18, and 33, and found in younger women[4].These women tend to present with early-stage disease.[5]
- There is evidence that some high-grade vulvar and vaginal intraepithelial neoplasias are monoclonal lesions derived from high-grade or malignant cervical disease[6].
- Presence of the cervix does not appear to be necessary for oncogenic HPV to infect the genital tract.
Verrucous carcinoma
- Verrucous vulvar carcinoma is a variant of squamous cell carcinoma that has distinctive features.
- Although cauliflower-like in appearance, it is differentiated from squamous cell carcinoma with a verrucous configuration.
- Biopsy shows papillary fronds without the central connective tissue core typical of condylomata acuminata.
- The lesion grows slowly and rarely metastasizes to lymph nodes, but it may be locally destructive.
Basal cell carcinoma
- Basal cell carcinoma is a squamous histology, but is distinct from squamous cell vulvar carcinoma.
- Approximately 2 to 8 percent of vulvar cancers are basal cell cancers, and 2 percent of basal cell cancers occur on the vulva[7].
- Basal cell vulvar carcinoma usually affects postmenopausal white women and may be locally invasive, although it is usually non-metastasizing [8].
- The typical appearance is that of a "rodent" ulcer with rolled edges and central ulceration.
- It is often asymptomatic, but pruritus, bleeding, or pain may occur.
- Basal cell carcinomas are associated with a high incidence of antecedent or concomitant malignancy elsewhere in the body[8].
Melanoma
- Melanoma is the second most common vulvar cancer histology, accounting for approximately 2 to 10 percent of primary vulvar neoplasms[9].
- Melanoma of the vulva occurs predominantly in postmenopausal, white, non-Hispanic women, at a median age of 68 years[10]. By contrast, cutaneous melanomas presenting at other sites often develop before age 45.
- Vulvar melanoma is usually a pigmented lesion, but amelanotic lesions also occur.
- Most arise de novo on the clitoris or labia minora, but can also develop within preexisting junctional or compound nevi.
Sarcoma
- Soft tissue sarcomas (including leiomyosarcomas, rhabdomyosarcomas, liposarcomas, angiosarcomas, neurofibrosarcomas, epithelioid sarcomas, and undifferentiated/unclassified soft tissue sarcomas) constitute 1 to 2 percent of vulvar malignancies. The prognosis is generally poor[11].
- As with soft tissue sarcomas located elsewhere on the extremities and trunk, high-grade lesions that are larger than 5 cm in diameter, with infiltrating margins and a high mitotic rate, are those most likely to recur.
Paget disease of the vulva
- Extramammary Paget disease, an intraepithelial adenocarcinoma, accounts for less than 1 percent of all vulvar malignancies[12]. Most patients are in their 60s and 70s and white.
- Pruritus is the most common symptom, present in 70 percent of patients. Vulvar Paget disease is similar in appearance to Paget disease of the breast. The lesion has an eczematoid appearance; it is well-demarcated and has slightly raised edges and a red background, often dotted with small, pale islands. It is usually multifocal and may occur anywhere on the vulva, mons, perineum/perianal area, or inner thigh.
- Diagnosis is based upon characteristic histopathology. Vulvar biopsy should be performed in patients with suspicious lesions, including those with persistent pruritic eczematous lesions that fail to resolve within six weeks of appropriate anti-eczema therapy.
- Invasive adenocarcinomas may be present within or beneath the surface lesion[13].
- Women with Paget disease of the vulva should also be evaluated for the possibility of synchronous neoplasms, as approximately 20 to 30 percent of these patients have a noncontiguous carcinoma[14].
Bartholin gland carcinoma
- Bartholin gland carcinoma comprises approximately 0.1 to 5 percent of all vulvar carcinomas and 0.001 percent of all female malignancies[15].
- The incidence of Bartholin gland carcinoma in one series was 0.023 per 100,000 woman-years in premenopausal women[16].
- The incidence of Bartholin gland carcinoma is highest among women in their 60s.
- Most affected women do not have a past history of benign Bartholin gland disorders.
- Cancers arising in the Bartholin gland are most often adenocarcinomas or squamous cell carcinomas, but transitional cell carcinomas, adenosquamous, and adenoid cystic carcinomas may also develop. Most primary adenocarcinomas of the vulva occur in the Bartholin gland.[17]
- Only the squamous cell carcinomas of the Bartholin gland are related to HPV infection[17].
- Metastatic disease is common in cancers of the Bartholin gland because of the rich vascular and lymphatic network in this area. In one series of 11 women with Bartholin gland cancer, 55 percent developed recurrent disease, and 67 percent were alive at five years[18].
References
- ↑ Hoffman, Barbara (2012). Williams gynecology. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 9780071716727.
- ↑ Schuurman MS, van den Einden LC, Massuger LF, Kiemeney LA, van der Aa MA, de Hullu JA (December 2013). "Trends in incidence and survival of Dutch women with vulvar squamous cell carcinoma". Eur. J. Cancer. 49 (18): 3872–80. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2013.08.003. PMID 24011936.
- ↑ Saraiya M, Watson M, Wu X, King JB, Chen VW, Smith JS, Giuliano AR (November 2008). "Incidence of in situ and invasive vulvar cancer in the US, 1998-2003". Cancer. 113 (10 Suppl): 2865–72. doi:10.1002/cncr.23759. PMID 18980209.
- ↑ Hildesheim A, Han CL, Brinton LA, Kurman RJ, Schiller JT (November 1997). "Human papillomavirus type 16 and risk of preinvasive and invasive vulvar cancer: results from a seroepidemiological case-control study". Obstet Gynecol. 90 (5): 748–54. doi:10.1016/S0029-7844(97)00467-5. PMID 9351758.
- ↑ Al-Ghamdi A, Freedman D, Miller D, Poh C, Rosin M, Zhang L, Gilks CB (January 2002). "Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma in young women: a clinicopathologic study of 21 cases". Gynecol. Oncol. 84 (1): 94–101. doi:10.1006/gyno.2001.6466. PMID 11748983.
- ↑ Vinokurova S, Wentzensen N, Einenkel J, Klaes R, Ziegert C, Melsheimer P, Sartor H, Horn LC, Höckel M, von Knebel Doeberitz M (December 2005). "Clonal history of papillomavirus-induced dysplasia in the female lower genital tract". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 97 (24): 1816–21. doi:10.1093/jnci/dji428. PMID 16368943.
- ↑ de Giorgi V, Salvini C, Massi D, Raspollini MR, Carli P (April 2005). "Vulvar basal cell carcinoma: retrospective study and review of literature". Gynecol. Oncol. 97 (1): 192–4. doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2004.12.008. PMID 15790457.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Benedet JL, Miller DM, Ehlen TG, Bertrand MA (November 1997). "Basal cell carcinoma of the vulva: clinical features and treatment results in 28 patients". Obstet Gynecol. 90 (5): 765–8. doi:10.1016/S0029-7844(97)00416-X. PMID 9351761.
- ↑ Stang A, Streller B, Eisinger B, Jöckel KH (January 2005). "Population-based incidence rates of malignant melanoma of the vulva in Germany". Gynecol. Oncol. 96 (1): 216–21. doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2004.09.052. PMID 15589604.
- ↑ Sugiyama VE, Chan JK, Shin JY, Berek JS, Osann K, Kapp DS (August 2007). "Vulvar melanoma: a multivariable analysis of 644 patients". Obstet Gynecol. 110 (2 Pt 1): 296–301. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000271209.67461.91. PMID 17666603.
- ↑ Nasioudis D, Alevizakos M, Chapman-Davis E, Witkin SS, Holcomb K (August 2017). "Rhabdomyosarcoma of the lower female genital tract: an analysis of 144 cases". Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 296 (2): 327–334. doi:10.1007/s00404-017-4438-1. PMID 28634755.
- ↑ Parker LP, Parker JR, Bodurka-Bevers D, Deavers M, Bevers MW, Shen-Gunther J, Gershenson DM (April 2000). "Paget's disease of the vulva: pathology, pattern of involvement, and prognosis". Gynecol. Oncol. 77 (1): 183–9. doi:10.1006/gyno.2000.5741. PMID 10739709.
- ↑ Fanning J, Lambert HC, Hale TM, Morris PC, Schuerch C (January 1999). "Paget's disease of the vulva: prevalence of associated vulvar adenocarcinoma, invasive Paget's disease, and recurrence after surgical excision". Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 180 (1 Pt 1): 24–7. PMID 9914572.
- ↑ Feuer GA, Shevchuk M, Calanog A (July 1990). "Vulvar Paget's disease: the need to exclude an invasive lesion". Gynecol. Oncol. 38 (1): 81–9. PMID 2162317.
- ↑ DePasquale SE, McGuinness TB, Mangan CE, Husson M, Woodland MB (April 1996). "Adenoid cystic carcinoma of Bartholin's gland: a review of the literature and report of a patient". Gynecol. Oncol. 61 (1): 122–5. doi:10.1006/gyno.1996.0109. PMID 8626099.
- ↑ Visco AG, Del Priore G (February 1996). "Postmenopausal bartholin gland enlargement: a hospital-based cancer risk assessment". Obstet Gynecol. 87 (2): 286–90. PMID 8559540.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Felix JC, Cote RJ, Kramer EE, Saigo P, Goldman GH (March 1993). "Carcinomas of Bartholin's gland. Histogenesis and the etiological role of human papillomavirus". Am. J. Pathol. 142 (3): 925–33. PMC 1886794. PMID 8384409.
- ↑ Cardosi RJ, Speights A, Fiorica JV, Grendys EC, Hakam A, Hoffman MS (August 2001). "Bartholin's gland carcinoma: a 15-year experience". Gynecol. Oncol. 82 (2): 247–51. doi:10.1006/gyno.2001.6304. PMID 11531274.