Squamous cell carcinoma of the lung risk factors: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Common risk factors in the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung are smoking, family history of [[lung cancer]], high levels of air pollution, radiation therapy to the chest, radon gas, [[asbestos]], occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens, and previous lung disease. | Common risk factors in the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung are smoking, family history of [[lung cancer]], high levels of air pollution, radiation therapy to the chest, radon gas, [[asbestos]], occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens, and previous lung disease. | ||
== | ==Risk Factors== | ||
Common risk factors in the development of squamous cell carcinoma | *Common risk factors in the development of squamous cell carcinoma include:<ref>{{cite web | last =CDC | authorlink =Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title =1986 Surgeon General's report: the health consequences of involuntary smoking | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 1986 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000837.htm | pmid =3097495 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite book | last =National Research Council | title =Environmental tobacco smoke: measuring exposures and assessing health effects | publisher =National Academy Press | date =1986 | url =http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=943#toc | isbn =0-309-07456-8 }}<br />* {{cite paper | author =EPA | authorlink=United States Environmental Protection Agency | title =Respiratory health effects of passive smoking: lung cancer and other disorders | publisher =EPA | date =1992 | url =http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=2835 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =California Environmental Protection Agency | title =Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke | journal =Tobacco Control | volume =6 | issue =4 | pages =346–353 | date =1997 |url =http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/tobacco/caets/ets-main.htm | pmid =9583639 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =CDC | authorlink=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | title =State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000 | journal =Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume =50 | issue =49 | pages =1101–1106 | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 2001 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5049a1.htm | pmid =11794619 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Alberg | first =AJ | coauthors =Samet JM | title =Epidemiology of lung cancer | journal =Chest | volume =123 | issue =S1 | pages =21S-49S | publisher =American College of Chest Physicians | date =Jan 2003 | url =http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/123/1_suppl/21S | pmid =12527563 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Boffetta">{{cite journal | last =Boffetta | first =P | coauthors = Agudo A, Ahrens W et al. | title =Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe | journal =Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume =90 | issue =19 | pages =1440–1450 | publisher =Oxford University Press | date =Oct 1998 | url =http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/90/19/1440 | pmid =9776409 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Committee">{{cite web | title =Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health | publisher =Department of Health |date =Mar 1998 | url =http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/doh/tobacco/contents.htm | accessdate =2007-07-09 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Hackshaw | first =AK | title =Lung cancer and passive smoking | journal =Statistical Methods in Medical Research | volume =7 | issue =2 | pages =119–136 | date =Jun 1998 | pmid =9654638 }}</ref><ref name="NHMRC">{{cite paper | author =National Health and Medical Research Council | title =The health effects and regulation of passive smoking |publisher =Australian Government Publishing Service | date =Apr 1994 | url =http://www.obpr.gov.au/publications/submission/healthef/index.html | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref><ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | ||
* Smoking | **[[Smoking]] | ||
* Second-hand smoke | **[[Passive smoking|Second-hand smoke]] | ||
* Family history of [[lung cancer]] | **Family history of [[lung cancer]] | ||
* High levels of air pollution | **High levels of [[air pollution]] | ||
* Radiation therapy to the chest | **[[Radiation therapy]] to the chest | ||
* Radon gas | **[[Radon]] gas | ||
* [[Asbestos]] | **[[Asbestos]] | ||
* High levels of [[arsenic]] in drinking water | **High levels of [[arsenic]] in drinking water | ||
* Occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens | **Occupational exposure to chemical [[Carcinogen|carcinogens]] | ||
* Previous lung disease | **Previous lung disease | ||
* Indoor burning of coal | **Indoor burning of coal | ||
* Weakened [[immune system]] | **Weakened [[immune system]] | ||
* [[Lupus]] | *** Human immunodeficiency virus infection<ref name="pmid19770804">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shiels MS, Cole SR, Kirk GD, Poole C |title=A meta-analysis of the incidence of non-AIDS cancers in HIV-infected individuals |journal=J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=611–22 |date=December 2009 |pmid=19770804 |pmc=2790038 |doi=10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181b327ca |url=}}</ref> | ||
**[[Lupus]] | |||
'''Smoking''' | '''Smoking''' | ||
*Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung | *[[Smoking|Cigarette smoking]] is the leading cause of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung. | ||
*Both active and passive smoking are associated with increased risk of lung cancer | *Both [[Smoking|active]] and [[passive smoking]] are associated with increased risk of lung cancer. | ||
*The risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung is associated with increased quantity of cigarette smoking as well as increased duration of smoking | *The risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung is associated with increased quantity of cigarette smoking as well as increased duration of [[smoking]]. | ||
*There is a direct correlation between the | *There is a direct correlation between the amount of smoked cigarettes per day and the risk of lung cancer. | ||
* The e-cigarrettes | * The e-cigarrettes have also been associated with a significantly increased risk of lung cancer due to the presence of formaldehyde.<ref name="pmid25607446">{{cite journal| author=Jensen RP, Luo W, Pankow JF, Strongin RM, Peyton DH| title=Hidden formaldehyde in e-cigarette aerosols. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2015 | volume= 372 | issue= 4 | pages= 392-4 | pmid=25607446 | doi=10.1056/NEJMc1413069 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25607446 }} </ref> | ||
*In the United States, smoking is estimated to account for 87% of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung cases (90% in men and 85% in women)<ref name="Samet2">{{cite journal | last =Samet | first =JM | coauthors =Wiggins CL, Humble CG, Pathak DR | title =Cigarette smoking and lung cancer in New Mexico | journal =American Review of Respiratory Disease | volume =137 | issue =5 | pages =1110–1113 | date =May 1988 | pmid =3264122 }}</ref> | *In the United States, [[smoking]] is estimated to account for approximately 87% of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung cases.(90% in men and 85% in women)<ref name="Samet2">{{cite journal | last =Samet | first =JM | coauthors =Wiggins CL, Humble CG, Pathak DR | title =Cigarette smoking and lung cancer in New Mexico | journal =American Review of Respiratory Disease | volume =137 | issue =5 | pages =1110–1113 | date =May 1988 | pmid =3264122 }}</ref> | ||
'''Second-hand | '''Second-hand Smoke''' | ||
* People exposed to [[Passive smoking|second-hand smoke]] have an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung. | |||
* Second-hand smoke is a main risk factor for squamous cell carcinoma of the lung among non-smokers.<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | |||
* People exposed to second-hand smoke have an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung | |||
* Second-hand smoke is a main risk factor for squamous cell carcinoma of the lung among non-smokers<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | |||
'''Air Pollution''' | '''Air Pollution''' | ||
*Emissions from automobiles, factories and power plants are thought to pose potential risks<ref name="Parent">{{cite journal | last =Parent | first =ME | coauthors = Rousseau MC, Boffetta P et al. | title =Exposure to diesel and gasoline engine emissions and the risk of lung cancer | journal =American Journal of Epidemiology | volume =165 | issue =1 | pages =53–62 | date =Jan 2007 | pmid = 17062632 }}</ref> | * The long term exposure to air pollution can also cause squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.<ref name="pmid21325732">{{cite journal |vauthors=Katanoda K, Sobue T, Satoh H, Tajima K, Suzuki T, Nakatsuka H, Takezaki T, Nakayama T, Nitta H, Tanabe K, Tominaga S |title=An association between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and mortality from lung cancer and respiratory diseases in Japan |journal=J Epidemiol |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=132–43 |date=2011 |pmid=21325732 |pmc=3899505 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21194838">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cao J, Yang C, Li J, Chen R, Chen B, Gu D, Kan H |title=Association between long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution and mortality in China: a cohort study |journal=J. Hazard. Mater. |volume=186 |issue=2-3 |pages=1594–600 |date=February 2011 |pmid=21194838 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.12.036 |url=}}</ref> | ||
* | |||
*Emissions from automobiles, factories, and power plants are thought to pose potential risks for the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.<ref name="Parent">{{cite journal | last =Parent | first =ME | coauthors = Rousseau MC, Boffetta P et al. | title =Exposure to diesel and gasoline engine emissions and the risk of lung cancer | journal =American Journal of Epidemiology | volume =165 | issue =1 | pages =53–62 | date =Jan 2007 | pmid = 17062632 }}</ref> | |||
* Individual components of outdoor [[air pollution]], namely diesel engine exhaust, [[benzene]], particulate matter and some [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon|polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]] (PAHs), are associated with development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | |||
'''Family History of Lung Cancer''' | '''Family History of Lung Cancer''' | ||
* Family history of lung cancer may increase the risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | * Family history of lung cancer may increase the risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref><ref name="pmid20306329">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lissowska J, Foretova L, Dabek J, Zaridze D, Szeszenia-Dabrowska N, Rudnai P, Fabianova E, Cassidy A, Mates D, Bencko V, Janout V, Hung RJ, Brennan P, Boffetta P |title=Family history and lung cancer risk: international multicentre case-control study in Eastern and Central Europe and meta-analyses |journal=Cancer Causes Control |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=1091–104 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20306329 |doi=10.1007/s10552-010-9537-2 |url=}}</ref> | ||
* First-degree relatives of | * First-degree relatives of individuals who have had lung cancer may have a slightly higher risk of developing lung cancer themselves. | ||
* The increased risk among first-degree relatives could be due to a number of factors, such as shared behaviors or living in the same place where there are carcinogens | * The increased risk among first-degree relatives could be due to a number of factors, such as shared behaviors or living in the same place where there are carcinogens. | ||
* Studies of families with a strong history of lung cancer have found that the increased risk | * Studies of families with a strong history of lung cancer have found that the increased risk iis likely caused by a mutation in specific lung cancer genes. | ||
* | *The risk of lung cancer in a family increases if one family member developed the disease at an early age. | ||
'''Radiation Therapy to the Chest''' | '''Radiation Therapy to the Chest''' | ||
*A history of | *A history of [[radiation therapy]] to the chest (e.g. [[Hodgkin's lymphoma]] or [[breast cancer]]) increases the risk due to the development of cellular damage and [[DNA mutations]].<ref name="pmid20634481">{{cite journal |vauthors=Friedman DL, Whitton J, Leisenring W, Mertens AC, Hammond S, Stovall M, Donaldson SS, Meadows AT, Robison LL, Neglia JP |title=Subsequent neoplasms in 5-year survivors of childhood cancer: the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=102 |issue=14 |pages=1083–95 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20634481 |pmc=2907408 |doi=10.1093/jnci/djq238 |url=}}</ref> | ||
'''Radon Exposure''' | '''Radon Exposure''' | ||
*Radon is the leading cause of lung cancer in non-smokers and the second leading cause of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung in smokers | *Radon is the leading cause of lung cancer in non-smokers and the second leading cause of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung in smokers.<ref name="pmid19129153">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gray A, Read S, McGale P, Darby S |title=Lung cancer deaths from indoor radon and the cost effectiveness and potential of policies to reduce them |journal=BMJ |volume=338 |issue= |pages=a3110 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19129153 |pmc=2769068 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
* Radon is a | * Radon is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that comes from the natural breakdown of [[uranium]] in rocks and soil. In the outdoors, [[radon]] gas is diluted by fresh air, so it is not usually a concern. But radon can seep into a home or building through dirt floors or cracks in basement foundations. It may reach unsafe concentrations in enclosed, poorly ventilated homes or buildings because of seepage into the basement. Breathing in radon gas can damage cells that line the lungs. | ||
* Radon exposure increases the risk of lung cancer | * [[Radon]] exposure increases the risk of [[lung cancer]]. | ||
* The risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma of the lung depends on | * The risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma of the lung depends on the duration and quantity of [[radon]] a person has been exposed to. | ||
'''Asbestos Exposure''' | '''Asbestos Exposure''' | ||
* Asbestos is group of minerals that occur naturally. Asbestos has been widely used in building materials and many industries | * [[Asbestos]] is a group of minerals that occur naturally. Asbestos has been widely used in building materials and many industries. | ||
* Exposure to asbestos | * Exposure to asbestos fibers in the air increases the risk of lung cancer.<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | ||
* The risk of asbestos exposure is highest for | * The risk of asbestos exposure is highest for individuals who work with asbestos, such as miners. | ||
* | * The combination of [[smoking]] and [[asbestos]] exposure is especially hazardous. | ||
'''Exposure to Other Chemical Carcinogens''' | '''Exposure to Other Chemical Carcinogens''' | ||
* Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds | *The other chemical [[Carcinogen|carcinogens]] that can cause squamous cell carcinoma of the lung include:<ref name="pmid8602180">{{cite journal |vauthors=Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Glass A, Keogh JP, Meyskens FL, Valanis B, Williams JH, Barnhart S, Hammar S |title=Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=334 |issue=18 |pages=1150–5 |date=May 1996 |pmid=8602180 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199605023341802 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8127329">{{cite journal |vauthors= |title=The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=330 |issue=15 |pages=1029–35 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8127329 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199404143301501 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15894687">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tulunay OE, Hecht SS, Carmella SG, Zhang Y, Lemmonds C, Murphy S, Hatsukami DK |title=Urinary metabolites of a tobacco-specific lung carcinogen in nonsmoking hospitality workers |journal=Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=1283–6 |date=May 2005 |pmid=15894687 |doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-04-0570 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14693752">{{cite journal |vauthors=Anderson KE, Kliris J, Murphy L, Carmella SG, Han S, Link C, Bliss RL, Puumala S, Murphy SE, Hecht SS |title=Metabolites of a tobacco-specific lung carcinogen in nonsmoking casino patrons |journal=Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=1544–6 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14693752 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
* Beryllium and beryllium compounds | * [[Arsenic]] and inorganic arsenic compounds | ||
* Cadmium and cadmium compounds | * [[Beryllium]] and beryllium compounds | ||
* [[Cadmium]] and cadmium compounds | |||
* Chemicals used in rubber manufacturing, iron and steel founding and painting | * Chemicals used in rubber manufacturing, iron and steel founding and painting | ||
* Chloromethyl ethers and bischloromethylether | * [[Chloromethyl ether|Chloromethyl ethers]] and bischloromethylether | ||
* Chromium (VI) compounds | * [[Chromium VI|Chromium (VI)]] compounds | ||
* Cobalt-tungsten carbide | * [[Cobalt]]-[[tungsten]] carbide | ||
* Diesel engine exhaust | * Diesel engine exhaust | ||
* Mustard gas | * [[Mustard gas]] | ||
* Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) | * [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons|Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)]] | ||
* Radioactive ores such as uranium and plutonium | * Radioactive ores such as [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]] | ||
* Silica dust and crystalline silica | * [[Silica]] dust and [[crystalline]] silica | ||
* Some nickel compounds | * Some [[nickel]] compounds | ||
* [[Beta carotene]] supplements in heavy smokers | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
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[[Category:Lung cancer]] | [[Category:Lung cancer]] | ||
[[Category:Oncology]] | [[Category:Oncology]] | ||
[[Category:Up-To-Date]] | |||
[[Category:Oncology]] | |||
[[Category:Medicine]] | |||
[[Category:Pulmonology]] | |||
[[Category:Surgery]] | |||
Latest revision as of 20:26, 17 October 2019
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Shanshan Cen, M.D. [2] Maria Fernanda Villarreal, M.D. [3]
Overview
Common risk factors in the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung are smoking, family history of lung cancer, high levels of air pollution, radiation therapy to the chest, radon gas, asbestos, occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens, and previous lung disease.
Risk Factors
- Common risk factors in the development of squamous cell carcinoma include:[1][2][3][4][5][6]
- Smoking
- Second-hand smoke
- Family history of lung cancer
- High levels of air pollution
- Radiation therapy to the chest
- Radon gas
- Asbestos
- High levels of arsenic in drinking water
- Occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens
- Previous lung disease
- Indoor burning of coal
- Weakened immune system
- Human immunodeficiency virus infection[7]
- Lupus
Smoking
- Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.
- Both active and passive smoking are associated with increased risk of lung cancer.
- The risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung is associated with increased quantity of cigarette smoking as well as increased duration of smoking.
- There is a direct correlation between the amount of smoked cigarettes per day and the risk of lung cancer.
- The e-cigarrettes have also been associated with a significantly increased risk of lung cancer due to the presence of formaldehyde.[8]
- In the United States, smoking is estimated to account for approximately 87% of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung cases.(90% in men and 85% in women)[9]
Second-hand Smoke
- People exposed to second-hand smoke have an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.
- Second-hand smoke is a main risk factor for squamous cell carcinoma of the lung among non-smokers.[10]
Air Pollution
- Emissions from automobiles, factories, and power plants are thought to pose potential risks for the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.[13]
- Individual components of outdoor air pollution, namely diesel engine exhaust, benzene, particulate matter and some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are associated with development of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.[14]
Family History of Lung Cancer
- Family history of lung cancer may increase the risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.[15][16]
- First-degree relatives of individuals who have had lung cancer may have a slightly higher risk of developing lung cancer themselves.
- The increased risk among first-degree relatives could be due to a number of factors, such as shared behaviors or living in the same place where there are carcinogens.
- Studies of families with a strong history of lung cancer have found that the increased risk iis likely caused by a mutation in specific lung cancer genes.
- The risk of lung cancer in a family increases if one family member developed the disease at an early age.
Radiation Therapy to the Chest
- A history of radiation therapy to the chest (e.g. Hodgkin's lymphoma or breast cancer) increases the risk due to the development of cellular damage and DNA mutations.[17]
Radon Exposure
- Radon is the leading cause of lung cancer in non-smokers and the second leading cause of squamous cell carcinoma of the lung in smokers.[18]
- Radon is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that comes from the natural breakdown of uranium in rocks and soil. In the outdoors, radon gas is diluted by fresh air, so it is not usually a concern. But radon can seep into a home or building through dirt floors or cracks in basement foundations. It may reach unsafe concentrations in enclosed, poorly ventilated homes or buildings because of seepage into the basement. Breathing in radon gas can damage cells that line the lungs.
- Radon exposure increases the risk of lung cancer.
- The risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma of the lung depends on the duration and quantity of radon a person has been exposed to.
Asbestos Exposure
- Asbestos is a group of minerals that occur naturally. Asbestos has been widely used in building materials and many industries.
- Exposure to asbestos fibers in the air increases the risk of lung cancer.[19]
- The risk of asbestos exposure is highest for individuals who work with asbestos, such as miners.
- The combination of smoking and asbestos exposure is especially hazardous.
Exposure to Other Chemical Carcinogens
- The other chemical carcinogens that can cause squamous cell carcinoma of the lung include:[20][21][22][23]
- Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds
- Beryllium and beryllium compounds
- Cadmium and cadmium compounds
- Chemicals used in rubber manufacturing, iron and steel founding and painting
- Chloromethyl ethers and bischloromethylether
- Chromium (VI) compounds
- Cobalt-tungsten carbide
- Diesel engine exhaust
- Mustard gas
- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
- Radioactive ores such as uranium and plutonium
- Silica dust and crystalline silica
- Some nickel compounds
- Beta carotene supplements in heavy smokers
References
- ↑ CDC (Dec 1986). "1986 Surgeon General's report: the health consequences of involuntary smoking". CDC. PMID 3097495. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
* National Research Council (1986). Environmental tobacco smoke: measuring exposures and assessing health effects. National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-07456-8.
* Template:Cite paper
* California Environmental Protection Agency (1997). "Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke". Tobacco Control. 6 (4): 346–353. PMID 9583639. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
* CDC (Dec 2001). "State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. CDC. 50 (49): 1101–1106. PMID 11794619. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
* Alberg, AJ (Jan 2003). "Epidemiology of lung cancer". Chest. American College of Chest Physicians. 123 (S1): 21S–49S. PMID 12527563. Retrieved 2007-08-10. Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Boffetta, P (Oct 1998). "Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Oxford University Press. 90 (19): 1440–1450. PMID 9776409. Retrieved 2007-08-10. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ "Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health". Department of Health. Mar 1998. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
* Hackshaw, AK (Jun 1998). "Lung cancer and passive smoking". Statistical Methods in Medical Research. 7 (2): 119–136. PMID 9654638. - ↑ Template:Cite paper
- ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ Shiels MS, Cole SR, Kirk GD, Poole C (December 2009). "A meta-analysis of the incidence of non-AIDS cancers in HIV-infected individuals". J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 52 (5): 611–22. doi:10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181b327ca. PMC 2790038. PMID 19770804.
- ↑ Jensen RP, Luo W, Pankow JF, Strongin RM, Peyton DH (2015). "Hidden formaldehyde in e-cigarette aerosols". N Engl J Med. 372 (4): 392–4. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1413069. PMID 25607446.
- ↑ Samet, JM (May 1988). "Cigarette smoking and lung cancer in New Mexico". American Review of Respiratory Disease. 137 (5): 1110–1113. PMID 3264122. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ Katanoda K, Sobue T, Satoh H, Tajima K, Suzuki T, Nakatsuka H, Takezaki T, Nakayama T, Nitta H, Tanabe K, Tominaga S (2011). "An association between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and mortality from lung cancer and respiratory diseases in Japan". J Epidemiol. 21 (2): 132–43. PMC 3899505. PMID 21325732.
- ↑ Cao J, Yang C, Li J, Chen R, Chen B, Gu D, Kan H (February 2011). "Association between long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution and mortality in China: a cohort study". J. Hazard. Mater. 186 (2–3): 1594–600. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.12.036. PMID 21194838.
- ↑ Parent, ME (Jan 2007). "Exposure to diesel and gasoline engine emissions and the risk of lung cancer". American Journal of Epidemiology. 165 (1): 53–62. PMID 17062632. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ Lissowska J, Foretova L, Dabek J, Zaridze D, Szeszenia-Dabrowska N, Rudnai P, Fabianova E, Cassidy A, Mates D, Bencko V, Janout V, Hung RJ, Brennan P, Boffetta P (July 2010). "Family history and lung cancer risk: international multicentre case-control study in Eastern and Central Europe and meta-analyses". Cancer Causes Control. 21 (7): 1091–104. doi:10.1007/s10552-010-9537-2. PMID 20306329.
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