Typhoid fever epidemiology and demographics: Difference between revisions
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
Aysha Aslam (talk | contribs) No edit summary |
Aysha Aslam (talk | contribs) No edit summary |
||
| (45 intermediate revisions by 6 users not shown) | |||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
__NOTOC__ | __NOTOC__ | ||
{{Typhoid fever}} | {{Typhoid fever}} | ||
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{ | {{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{AAA}} | ||
== Overview == | == Overview == | ||
An estimated 16-33 million cases of typhoid result in 500,000 to 600,000 deaths annually. In 2000, typhoid fever caused an estimated 21.7 million illnesses and 217,000 deaths.<ref name="Crump,J.A.,& Mintz, E.D 2010">{{cite journal |author=Crump, J. A., & Mintz, E. D |title=Global trends in typhoid and paratyphoid fever. |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=241–246 |date=2010 |doi=10.1086/649541 |pmid=20014951}}</ref><ref name="pmid3484760">{{cite journal| author=Daul CB, deShazo RD, Andes WA, Pankey GA| title=Immunologic studies in homosexual and hemophiliac subjects with persistent generalized lymphadenopathy: a comparative analysis. | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 1986 | volume= 77 | issue= 2 | pages= 295-301 | pmid=3484760 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3484760 }} </ref> Worldwide, typhoid fever is most prevalent in overcrowded areas with poor hygiene and sanitation. Typhoid fever is still common in the developing world, where it affects about 21.5 million people each year. 1-6% of the individuals who are infected will develop a chronic infection of the gall bladder.<ref name="pmid6192305">{{cite journal| author=Lanata CF, Levine MM, Ristori C, Black RE, Jimenez L, Salcedo M et al.| title=Vi serology in detection of chronic Salmonella typhi carriers in an endemic area. | journal=Lancet | year= 1983 | volume= 2 | issue= 8347 | pages= 441-3 | pmid=6192305 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6192305 }} </ref> The incidence of typhoid fever varies in different parts of world.<ref name="pmid15298225">{{cite journal| author=Crump JA, Luby SP, Mintz ED| title=The global burden of typhoid fever. | journal=Bull World Health Organ | year= 2004 | volume= 82 | issue= 5 | pages= 346-53 | pmid=15298225 | doi= | pmc=2622843 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15298225 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19706859">{{cite journal| author=Lynch MF, Blanton EM, Bulens S, Polyak C, Vojdani J, Stevenson J et al.| title=Typhoid fever in the United States, 1999-2006. | journal=JAMA | year= 2009 | volume= 302 | issue= 8 | pages= 859-65 | pmid=19706859 | doi=10.1001/jama.2009.1229 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19706859 }} </ref><ref name="pmid23324216">{{cite journal| author=Jensenius M, Han PV, Schlagenhauf P, Schwartz E, Parola P, Castelli F et al.| title=Acute and potentially life-threatening tropical diseases in western travelers--a GeoSentinel multicenter study, 1996-2011. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 2013 | volume= 88 | issue= 2 | pages= 397-404 | pmid=23324216 | doi=10.4269/ajtmh.12-0551 | pmc=3583336 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23324216 }} </ref> Age, race, gender and certain environmental factors affect the distribution of disease among these groups.<ref name="who">{{cite web | title = Typhoid Fever | publisher = World Health Organisation | url = http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/diarrhoeal/en/index7.html | accessdate = [[2007-08-28]]}}</ref><ref name="pmid23359825">{{cite journal| author=Dewan AM, Corner R, Hashizume M, Ongee ET| title=Typhoid Fever and its association with environmental factors in the Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh: a spatial and time-series approach. | journal=PLoS Negl Trop Dis | year= 2013 | volume= 7 | issue= 1 | pages= e1998 | pmid=23359825 | doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001998 | pmc=3554574 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23359825 }} </ref><ref name="pmidhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)09">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)09 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> | |||
== Epidemiology == | == Epidemiology == | ||
*An estimated 16-33 million cases of typhoid result in 500,000 to 600,000 deaths annually. | |||
*In 2000, typhoid fever caused an estimated 21.7 million illnesses and 217,000 deaths.<ref name="Crump,J.A.,& Mintz, E.D 2010">{{cite journal |author=Crump, J. A., & Mintz, E. D |title=Global trends in typhoid and paratyphoid fever. |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=241–246 |date=2010 |doi=10.1086/649541 |pmid=20014951}}</ref><ref name="pmid3484760">{{cite journal| author=Daul CB, deShazo RD, Andes WA, Pankey GA| title=Immunologic studies in homosexual and hemophiliac subjects with persistent generalized lymphadenopathy: a comparative analysis. | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 1986 | volume= 77 | issue= 2 | pages= 295-301 | pmid=3484760 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3484760 }} </ref> | |||
*In 2013, typhoid fever resulted in about 161,000 deaths as compared to 181,000 in 1990.<ref name=GBD204> Infants, children, and adolescents in south-central and Southeast Asia experience the greatest burden of illness.</ref><ref name="Crump JA, Luby SP, Mintz ED 2004">{{cite journal |vauthors=Crump JA, Luby SP, Mintz ED |title=The global burden of typhoid fever. |journal=Bull World Health Organ |volume=82 |pages=346–353 |date=2004}}</ref> | |||
===Prevalance=== | |||
*Worldwide, typhoid fever is most prevalent in overcrowded areas with poor hygiene and sanitation. | |||
*Worldwide, typhoid fever is most prevalent in areas | *In [[endemic]] areas, the [[World Health Organisation]] identifies typhoid as a serious public health problem. | ||
*In endemic areas, the [[World Health Organisation]] identifies typhoid as a serious public health problem. | *Typhoid fever is still common in the developing world, where it affects about 21.5 million people each year. | ||
*Typhoid fever is still common in the developing world, where it affects about 21.5 million | *Typhoid fever is common in the most parts of the world except in the industrialized regions such as the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and Japan. | ||
*Typhoid fever is common in most parts of the world except in industrialized regions such as the United States, Canada, | *1-6% of the individuals who are infected will develop a chronic infection of the [[gall bladder]].<ref name="pmiddoi:10.1093/infdis/146.6.724">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=doi:10.1093/infdis/146.6.724 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref><ref name="pmid6192305">{{cite journal| author=Lanata CF, Levine MM, Ristori C, Black RE, Jimenez L, Salcedo M et al.| title=Vi serology in detection of chronic Salmonella typhi carriers in an endemic area. | journal=Lancet | year= 1983 | volume= 2 | issue= 8347 | pages= 441-3 | pmid=6192305 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6192305 }} </ref> | ||
*1-6% of individuals who are infected will develop a chronic infection | |||
===Incidence=== | ===Incidence=== | ||
*Areas with highest incidence of typhoid fever (>100/100,000 cases/year) include south-central Asia and south-east Asia.<ref name="pmid. doi:10.1128/jb.00581-12">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=. doi:10.1128/jb.00581-12 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> | The incidence of typhoid fever varies in different parts of world.<ref name="pmid15298225">{{cite journal| author=Crump JA, Luby SP, Mintz ED| title=The global burden of typhoid fever. | journal=Bull World Health Organ | year= 2004 | volume= 82 | issue= 5 | pages= 346-53 | pmid=15298225 | doi= | pmc=2622843 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15298225 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19706859">{{cite journal| author=Lynch MF, Blanton EM, Bulens S, Polyak C, Vojdani J, Stevenson J et al.| title=Typhoid fever in the United States, 1999-2006. | journal=JAMA | year= 2009 | volume= 302 | issue= 8 | pages= 859-65 | pmid=19706859 | doi=10.1001/jama.2009.1229 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19706859 }} </ref><ref name="pmid23324216">{{cite journal| author=Jensenius M, Han PV, Schlagenhauf P, Schwartz E, Parola P, Castelli F et al.| title=Acute and potentially life-threatening tropical diseases in western travelers--a GeoSentinel multicenter study, 1996-2011. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 2013 | volume= 88 | issue= 2 | pages= 397-404 | pmid=23324216 | doi=10.4269/ajtmh.12-0551 | pmc=3583336 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23324216 }} </ref> | ||
*Areas with the highest incidence of typhoid fever (>100/100,000 cases/year) include south-central Asia and south-east Asia.<ref name="pmid. doi:10.1128/jb.00581-12">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=. doi:10.1128/jb.00581-12 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref>. | |||
*Areas with the medium incidence (10-100/100,000 cases/year) include the rest of Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Oceania, except for Australia and New Zealand<ref name="pmid. doi:10.1128/jb.00581-12">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=. doi:10.1128/jb.00581-12 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> | |||
*Areas with the low incidence (<10/100,000 cases/year) include Europe, North America, and the rest of the world.<ref name="pmid. doi:10.1128/jb.00581-12">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=. doi:10.1128/jb.00581-12 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> | |||
*The incidence of typhoid fever is estimated to be less than 400 cases per year in the United States and 75% of these are acquired while travelling internationally.<ref name="pmid25427666">{{cite journal| author=Imanishi M, Newton AE, Vieira AR, Gonzalez-Aviles G, Kendall Scott ME, Manikonda K et al.| title=Typhoid fever acquired in the United States, 1999-2010: epidemiology, microbiology, and use of a space-time scan statistic for outbreak detection. | journal=Epidemiol Infect | year= 2015 | volume= 143 | issue= 11 | pages= 2343-54 | pmid=25427666 | doi=10.1017/S0950268814003021 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25427666 }} </ref> | |||
===Case fatality rate=== | |||
*The case fatality rate for typhoid fever is 1%.<ref>[[David L. Heymann|Heymann, David L.]], ed. (2008), ''[[Control of Communicable Diseases Manual]]'', [[Washington, D.C.]]: [[American Public Health Association]], pg 665. ISBN 978-0-87553-189-2.</ref> | |||
* | |||
{| align="center" | {| align="center" | ||
|-valign="top" | |-valign="top" | ||
| [[Image:Typhoid stats.gif|thumb|Death rates for Typhoid Fever in the U.S. 1906-1960 - | |||
| [[Image:Typhoid stats.gif|thumb|Death rates for Typhoid Fever in the U.S. 1906-1960]] | Source: https://www.cdc.gov/]] | ||
|} | |} | ||
==Demographics== | ==Demographics== | ||
The following demographic factors may affect the [[incidence]] and [[prevalence]] of typhoid fever. | |||
===Age=== | |||
The incidence of typhoid fever is highest in children between the ages of 5 and 19 years.<ref name="who">{{cite web | title = Typhoid Fever | publisher = World Health Organisation | url = http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/diarrhoeal/en/index7.html | accessdate = [[2007-08-28]]}}</ref><ref name="pmid23359825">{{cite journal| author=Dewan AM, Corner R, Hashizume M, Ongee ET| title=Typhoid Fever and its association with environmental factors in the Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh: a spatial and time-series approach. | journal=PLoS Negl Trop Dis | year= 2013 | volume= 7 | issue= 1 | pages= e1998 | pmid=23359825 | doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001998 | pmc=3554574 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23359825 }} </ref><ref name="pmidhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)09">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)09 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> | |||
===Race=== | |||
There is no racial predilection for typhoid fever. | |||
===Gender=== | |||
Males are more commonly affected with the typhoid fever than females. The male to female ratio is approximately 1.36 to 1.<ref name="pmid23359825">{{cite journal| author=Dewan AM, Corner R, Hashizume M, Ongee ET| title=Typhoid Fever and its association with environmental factors in the Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh: a spatial and time-series approach. | journal=PLoS Negl Trop Dis | year= 2013 | volume= 7 | issue= 1 | pages= e1998 | pmid=23359825 | doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001998 | pmc=3554574 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23359825 }} </ref> | |||
===Environmental factors=== | |||
The incidence of typhoid fever increases with an increase in temperature and rainfall.<ref name="pmid23359825">{{cite journal| author=Dewan AM, Corner R, Hashizume M, Ongee ET| title=Typhoid Fever and its association with environmental factors in the Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh: a spatial and time-series approach. | journal=PLoS Negl Trop Dis | year= 2013 | volume= 7 | issue= 1 | pages= e1998 | pmid=23359825 | doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001998 | pmc=3554574 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23359825 }} </ref> | |||
===Developed countries=== | |||
Typhoid fever is sporadic in developed countries but may be seen in travellers returning from endemic areas. The incidence of typhoid fever in the United States has been stable at about 200-300 cases in 2013.<ref name="cdc"> Center for Disease Control United States http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2016/infectious-diseases-related-to-travel/typhoid-paratyphoid-fever. Accessed on September 12, 2016. </ref> | |||
===Developing countries=== | |||
The incidence and prevalence of typhoid fever is highest in developing countries.<ref name="pmid23359825">{{cite journal| author=Dewan AM, Corner R, Hashizume M, Ongee ET| title=Typhoid Fever and its association with environmental factors in the Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh: a spatial and time-series approach. | journal=PLoS Negl Trop Dis | year= 2013 | volume= 7 | issue= 1 | pages= e1998 | pmid=23359825 | doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001998 | pmc=3554574 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23359825 }} </ref><ref name="pmid3484760">{{cite journal| author=Daul CB, deShazo RD, Andes WA, Pankey GA| title=Immunologic studies in homosexual and hemophiliac subjects with persistent generalized lymphadenopathy: a comparative analysis. | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 1986 | volume= 77 | issue= 2 | pages= 295-301 | pmid=3484760 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3484760 }} </ref><ref name="pmid22689247">{{cite journal| author=Baddam R, Kumar N, Thong KL, Ngoi ST, Teh CS, Yap KP et al.| title=Genetic fine structure of a Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi strain associated with the 2005 outbreak of typhoid fever in Kelantan, Malaysia. | journal=J Bacteriol | year= 2012 | volume= 194 | issue= 13 | pages= 3565-6 | pmid=22689247 | doi=10.1128/JB.00581-12 | pmc=3434757 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22689247 }} </ref><ref name="pmidhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)09">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)09 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10 }} </ref> The incidence of typhoid fever in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam and Delhi in India is approximately 198 per 100,000 and 980 per 100,000 per year, respectively, based on recent reports.<ref name="pmid12456854">{{cite journal| author=Parry CM, Hien TT, Dougan G, White NJ, Farrar JJ| title=Typhoid fever. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2002 | volume= 347 | issue= 22 | pages= 1770-82 | pmid=12456854 | doi=10.1056/NEJMra020201 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12456854 }} </ref><ref name="pmid17908946">{{cite journal| author=Chau TT, Campbell JI, Galindo CM, Van Minh Hoang N, Diep TS, Nga TT et al.| title=Antimicrobial drug resistance of Salmonella enterica serovar typhi in asia and molecular mechanism of reduced susceptibility to the fluoroquinolones. | journal=Antimicrob Agents Chemother | year= 2007 | volume= 51 | issue= 12 | pages= 4315-23 | pmid=17908946 | doi=10.1128/AAC.00294-07 | pmc=2167998 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17908946 }} </ref> | |||
== References == | == References == | ||
| Line 45: | Line 68: | ||
{{WH}} | {{WH}} | ||
{{WS}} | |||
[[Category:Gastroenterology]] | |||
[[Category:FinalQCRequired]] | |||
[[Category:Emergency mdicine]] | |||
[[Category:Disease]] | |||
[[Category:Up-To-Date]] | |||
[[Category:Infectious disease]] | |||
Latest revision as of 02:40, 18 July 2021
|
Typhoid fever Microchapters |
|
Diagnosis |
|---|
|
Treatment |
|
Case Studies |
|
Typhoid fever epidemiology and demographics On the Web |
|
American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Typhoid fever epidemiology and demographics |
|
Risk calculators and risk factors for Typhoid fever epidemiology and demographics |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Aysha Aslam, M.B.B.S[2]
Overview
An estimated 16-33 million cases of typhoid result in 500,000 to 600,000 deaths annually. In 2000, typhoid fever caused an estimated 21.7 million illnesses and 217,000 deaths.[1][2] Worldwide, typhoid fever is most prevalent in overcrowded areas with poor hygiene and sanitation. Typhoid fever is still common in the developing world, where it affects about 21.5 million people each year. 1-6% of the individuals who are infected will develop a chronic infection of the gall bladder.[3] The incidence of typhoid fever varies in different parts of world.[4][5][6] Age, race, gender and certain environmental factors affect the distribution of disease among these groups.[7][8][9]
Epidemiology
- An estimated 16-33 million cases of typhoid result in 500,000 to 600,000 deaths annually.
- In 2000, typhoid fever caused an estimated 21.7 million illnesses and 217,000 deaths.[1][2]
- In 2013, typhoid fever resulted in about 161,000 deaths as compared to 181,000 in 1990.[10][11]
Prevalance
- Worldwide, typhoid fever is most prevalent in overcrowded areas with poor hygiene and sanitation.
- In endemic areas, the World Health Organisation identifies typhoid as a serious public health problem.
- Typhoid fever is still common in the developing world, where it affects about 21.5 million people each year.
- Typhoid fever is common in the most parts of the world except in the industrialized regions such as the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and Japan.
- 1-6% of the individuals who are infected will develop a chronic infection of the gall bladder.[12][3]
Incidence
The incidence of typhoid fever varies in different parts of world.[4][5][6]
- Areas with the highest incidence of typhoid fever (>100/100,000 cases/year) include south-central Asia and south-east Asia.[13].
- Areas with the medium incidence (10-100/100,000 cases/year) include the rest of Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Oceania, except for Australia and New Zealand[13]
- Areas with the low incidence (<10/100,000 cases/year) include Europe, North America, and the rest of the world.[13]
- The incidence of typhoid fever is estimated to be less than 400 cases per year in the United States and 75% of these are acquired while travelling internationally.[14]
Case fatality rate
- The case fatality rate for typhoid fever is 1%.[15]
 |
Demographics
The following demographic factors may affect the incidence and prevalence of typhoid fever.
Age
The incidence of typhoid fever is highest in children between the ages of 5 and 19 years.[7][8][9]
Race
There is no racial predilection for typhoid fever.
Gender
Males are more commonly affected with the typhoid fever than females. The male to female ratio is approximately 1.36 to 1.[8]
Environmental factors
The incidence of typhoid fever increases with an increase in temperature and rainfall.[8]
Developed countries
Typhoid fever is sporadic in developed countries but may be seen in travellers returning from endemic areas. The incidence of typhoid fever in the United States has been stable at about 200-300 cases in 2013.[16]
Developing countries
The incidence and prevalence of typhoid fever is highest in developing countries.[8][2][17][9] The incidence of typhoid fever in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam and Delhi in India is approximately 198 per 100,000 and 980 per 100,000 per year, respectively, based on recent reports.[18][19]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Crump, J. A., & Mintz, E. D (2010). "Global trends in typhoid and paratyphoid fever". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 50 (2): 241–246. doi:10.1086/649541. PMID 20014951.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Daul CB, deShazo RD, Andes WA, Pankey GA (1986). "Immunologic studies in homosexual and hemophiliac subjects with persistent generalized lymphadenopathy: a comparative analysis". J Allergy Clin Immunol. 77 (2): 295–301. PMID 3484760.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Lanata CF, Levine MM, Ristori C, Black RE, Jimenez L, Salcedo M; et al. (1983). "Vi serology in detection of chronic Salmonella typhi carriers in an endemic area". Lancet. 2 (8347): 441–3. PMID 6192305.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Crump JA, Luby SP, Mintz ED (2004). "The global burden of typhoid fever". Bull World Health Organ. 82 (5): 346–53. PMC 2622843. PMID 15298225.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Lynch MF, Blanton EM, Bulens S, Polyak C, Vojdani J, Stevenson J; et al. (2009). "Typhoid fever in the United States, 1999-2006". JAMA. 302 (8): 859–65. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1229. PMID 19706859.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Jensenius M, Han PV, Schlagenhauf P, Schwartz E, Parola P, Castelli F; et al. (2013). "Acute and potentially life-threatening tropical diseases in western travelers--a GeoSentinel multicenter study, 1996-2011". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 88 (2): 397–404. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.12-0551. PMC 3583336. PMID 23324216.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Typhoid Fever". World Health Organisation. Retrieved 2007-08-28. Check date values in:
|accessdate=(help) - ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Dewan AM, Corner R, Hashizume M, Ongee ET (2013). "Typhoid Fever and its association with environmental factors in the Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh: a spatial and time-series approach". PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 7 (1): e1998. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001998. PMC 3554574. PMID 23359825.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G (1975). "Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes". Biochem Pharmacol. 24 (17): 1639–41. PMID http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)09 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Infants, children, and adolescents in south-central and Southeast Asia experience the greatest burden of illness.
- ↑ Crump JA, Luby SP, Mintz ED (2004). "The global burden of typhoid fever". Bull World Health Organ. 82: 346–353.
- ↑ Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G (1975). "Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes". Biochem Pharmacol. 24 (17): 1639–41. PMID doi:10.1093/infdis/146.6.724 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G (1975). "Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes". Biochem Pharmacol. 24 (17): 1639–41. PMID doi:10.1128/jb.00581-12 . doi:10.1128/jb.00581-12 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Imanishi M, Newton AE, Vieira AR, Gonzalez-Aviles G, Kendall Scott ME, Manikonda K; et al. (2015). "Typhoid fever acquired in the United States, 1999-2010: epidemiology, microbiology, and use of a space-time scan statistic for outbreak detection". Epidemiol Infect. 143 (11): 2343–54. doi:10.1017/S0950268814003021. PMID 25427666.
- ↑ Heymann, David L., ed. (2008), Control of Communicable Diseases Manual, Washington, D.C.: American Public Health Association, pg 665. ISBN 978-0-87553-189-2.
- ↑ Center for Disease Control United States http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2016/infectious-diseases-related-to-travel/typhoid-paratyphoid-fever. Accessed on September 12, 2016.
- ↑ Baddam R, Kumar N, Thong KL, Ngoi ST, Teh CS, Yap KP; et al. (2012). "Genetic fine structure of a Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi strain associated with the 2005 outbreak of typhoid fever in Kelantan, Malaysia". J Bacteriol. 194 (13): 3565–6. doi:10.1128/JB.00581-12. PMC 3434757. PMID 22689247.
- ↑ Parry CM, Hien TT, Dougan G, White NJ, Farrar JJ (2002). "Typhoid fever". N Engl J Med. 347 (22): 1770–82. doi:10.1056/NEJMra020201. PMID 12456854.
- ↑ Chau TT, Campbell JI, Galindo CM, Van Minh Hoang N, Diep TS, Nga TT; et al. (2007). "Antimicrobial drug resistance of Salmonella enterica serovar typhi in asia and molecular mechanism of reduced susceptibility to the fluoroquinolones". Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 51 (12): 4315–23. doi:10.1128/AAC.00294-07. PMC 2167998. PMID 17908946.