Fungal meningitis natural history, complications and prognosis: Difference between revisions

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==Overview==
==Overview==
Fungal meningitis usually presents with progressive symptoms of headache, low grade fever and fatigue. If left untreated, neurological complications might occur.
If left untreated, [[neurological]] complications may occur. [[Fungal meningitis]] may be complicated by [[abscesses]], bone invasion, fluid collections, neurological deficits, ocular invasion, [[papilledema]], [[Neurodevelopmental disorders|neurodevelopmental]] delays in children, and [[Seizure|seizures]]<ref name="Marx">John Marx. Chapter 107. Central Nervous System Infections. Marx: Rosen's Emergency Medicine, 7th ed. Mosby: Elsevier; 2009.</ref><ref name="pmid27590564">{{cite journal| author=Farrugia MK, Fogha EP, Miah AR, Yednock J, Palmer HC, Guilfoose J| title=Candida meningitis in an immunocompetent patient detected through (1→3)-beta-d-glucan. | journal=Int J Infect Dis | year= 2016 | volume= 51 | issue=  | pages= 25-26 | pmid=27590564 | doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2016.08.020 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27590564  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27638836">{{cite journal| author=Nyazika TK, Hagen F, Machiridza T, Kutepa M, Masanganise F, Hendrickx M et al.| title=Cryptococcus neoformans population diversity and clinical outcomes of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis patients in Zimbabwe. | journal=J Med Microbiol | year= 2016 | volume= 65 | issue= 11 | pages= 1281-1288 | pmid=27638836 | doi=10.1099/jmm.0.000354 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27638836  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27583871">{{cite journal| author=Leonhard SE, Fritz D, van de Beek D, Brouwer MC| title=Cryptococcal meningitis complicating sarcoidosis. | journal=Medicine (Baltimore) | year= 2016 | volume= 95 | issue= 35 | pages= e4587 | pmid=27583871 | doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000004587 | pmc=5008555 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27583871  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27210482">{{cite journal| author=Neo WL, Durisala N, Ho EC| title=Reversible hearing loss following cryptococcal meningitis: case study. | journal=J Laryngol Otol | year= 2016 | volume= 130 | issue= 7 | pages= 691-5 | pmid=27210482 | doi=10.1017/S002221511600801X | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27210482  }} </ref> The [[mortality]] associated with [[fungal meningitis]] is high. Better prognosis is associated with early diagnosis, early initiation of the treatment and compliance of patients with medications.
 
==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis==
==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis==
===Natural History===
===Natural History===
Fungal meningitis is rarely found in immunocompetent patients. It usually occurs in patients with immunosuppression like patients with HIV and transplant patients on immunosuppression and long term steroid therapy. The onset of symptoms is progressive and the course of the infection is protracted. The patients tend to present with symptoms like headache, low grade fever, fatigue and even weight loss<ref name="Marx">John Marx. Chapter 107. Central Nervous System Infections. Marx: Rosen's Emergency Medicine, 7th ed. Mosby: Elsevier; 2009.</ref>. This obscure presentation might cause delay in the diagnosis and in the initiation of the appropriate treatment.
If left untreated, [[neurological]] complications may occur.


===Complications===
===Complications===
The following are some complications that may follow fungal meningitis:<ref name="pmid27590564">{{cite journal| author=Farrugia MK, Fogha EP, Miah AR, Yednock J, Palmer HC, Guilfoose J| title=Candida meningitis in an immunocompetent patient detected through (1→3)-beta-d-glucan. | journal=Int J Infect Dis | year= 2016 | volume= 51 | issue=  | pages= 25-26 | pmid=27590564 | doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2016.08.020 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27590564  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27638836">{{cite journal| author=Nyazika TK, Hagen F, Machiridza T, Kutepa M, Masanganise F, Hendrickx M et al.| title=Cryptococcus neoformans population diversity and clinical outcomes of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis patients in Zimbabwe. | journal=J Med Microbiol | year= 2016 | volume= 65 | issue= 11 | pages= 1281-1288 | pmid=27638836 | doi=10.1099/jmm.0.000354 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27638836  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27583871">{{cite journal| author=Leonhard SE, Fritz D, van de Beek D, Brouwer MC| title=Cryptococcal meningitis complicating sarcoidosis. | journal=Medicine (Baltimore) | year= 2016 | volume= 95 | issue= 35 | pages= e4587 | pmid=27583871 | doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000004587 | pmc=5008555 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27583871  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27210482">{{cite journal| author=Neo WL, Durisala N, Ho EC| title=Reversible hearing loss following cryptococcal meningitis: case study. | journal=J Laryngol Otol | year= 2016 | volume= 130 | issue= 7 | pages= 691-5 | pmid=27210482 | doi=10.1017/S002221511600801X | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27210482  }} </ref>
The following are some complications that may follow fungal meningitis:<ref name="pmid27590564">{{cite journal| author=Farrugia MK, Fogha EP, Miah AR, Yednock J, Palmer HC, Guilfoose J| title=Candida meningitis in an immunocompetent patient detected through (1→3)-beta-d-glucan. | journal=Int J Infect Dis | year= 2016 | volume= 51 | issue=  | pages= 25-26 | pmid=27590564 | doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2016.08.020 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27590564  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27638836">{{cite journal| author=Nyazika TK, Hagen F, Machiridza T, Kutepa M, Masanganise F, Hendrickx M et al.| title=Cryptococcus neoformans population diversity and clinical outcomes of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis patients in Zimbabwe. | journal=J Med Microbiol | year= 2016 | volume= 65 | issue= 11 | pages= 1281-1288 | pmid=27638836 | doi=10.1099/jmm.0.000354 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27638836  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27583871">{{cite journal| author=Leonhard SE, Fritz D, van de Beek D, Brouwer MC| title=Cryptococcal meningitis complicating sarcoidosis. | journal=Medicine (Baltimore) | year= 2016 | volume= 95 | issue= 35 | pages= e4587 | pmid=27583871 | doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000004587 | pmc=5008555 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27583871  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27210482">{{cite journal| author=Neo WL, Durisala N, Ho EC| title=Reversible hearing loss following cryptococcal meningitis: case study. | journal=J Laryngol Otol | year= 2016 | volume= 130 | issue= 7 | pages= 691-5 | pmid=27210482 | doi=10.1017/S002221511600801X | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27210482  }} </ref>
*Abscesses
*[[Abscesses]]
*Bone invasion
*[[Bone]] [[invasion]]
*Fluid collections
*[[Fluid]] collections
*Neurological deficits
*[[Neurological]] deficits
*Ocular invasion
*[[Ocular]] [[invasion]]
*Papilledema
*[[Papilledema]]
*Seizures<ref name="Marx">John Marx. Chapter 107. Central Nervous System Infections. Marx: Rosen's Emergency Medicine, 7th ed. Mosby: Elsevier; 2009.</ref>
*[[Seizure|Seizures]]<ref name="Marx">John Marx. Chapter 107. Central Nervous System Infections. Marx: Rosen's Emergency Medicine, 7th ed. Mosby: Elsevier; 2009.</ref>
*Neurodevelopmental delays in children
*[[Neurodevelopmental Disorders|Neurodevelopmental]] delays in children
 
 
====Complications from therapy====
====Complications from therapy====
Treatment of fungal meningitis in HIV-infected patients receiving HAART, organ transplantation, and pregnancy may result in immune reconstitution syndrome.<ref name="pmid17521592">{{cite journal| author=Singh N, Perfect JR| title=Immune reconstitution syndrome associated with opportunistic mycoses. | journal=Lancet Infect Dis | year= 2007 | volume= 7 | issue= 6 | pages= 395-401 | pmid=17521592 | doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70085-3 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17521592  }} </ref><ref name="pmid12471589">{{cite journal| author=Jenny-Avital ER, Abadi M| title=Immune reconstitution cryptococcosis after initiation of successful highly active antiretroviral therapy. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2002 | volume= 35 | issue= 12 | pages= e128-33 | pmid=12471589 | doi=10.1086/344467 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12471589  }} </ref><ref name="pmid10225395">{{cite journal| author=Blanche P, Gombert B, Ginsburg C, Passeron A, Stubei I, Rigolet A et al.| title=HIV combination therapy: immune restitution causing cryptococcal lymphadenitis dramatically improved by anti-inflammatory therapy. | journal=Scand J Infect Dis | year= 1998 | volume= 30 | issue= 6 | pages= 615-6 | pmid=10225395 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10225395  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9727570">{{cite journal| author=Woods ML, MacGinley R, Eisen DP, Allworth AM| title=HIV combination therapy: partial immune restitution unmasking latent cryptococcal infection. | journal=AIDS | year= 1998 | volume= 12 | issue= 12 | pages= 1491-4 | pmid=9727570 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9727570  }} </ref>
Treatment of [[fungal meningitis]] in [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]]-infected patients receiving [[HIV AIDS medical therapy|HAART]], [[organ transplantation]], and [[pregnancy]] may result in [[immune reconstitution syndrome]].<ref name="pmid17521592">{{cite journal| author=Singh N, Perfect JR| title=Immune reconstitution syndrome associated with opportunistic mycoses. | journal=Lancet Infect Dis | year= 2007 | volume= 7 | issue= 6 | pages= 395-401 | pmid=17521592 | doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70085-3 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17521592  }} </ref><ref name="pmid12471589">{{cite journal| author=Jenny-Avital ER, Abadi M| title=Immune reconstitution cryptococcosis after initiation of successful highly active antiretroviral therapy. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2002 | volume= 35 | issue= 12 | pages= e128-33 | pmid=12471589 | doi=10.1086/344467 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12471589  }} </ref><ref name="pmid10225395">{{cite journal| author=Blanche P, Gombert B, Ginsburg C, Passeron A, Stubei I, Rigolet A et al.| title=HIV combination therapy: immune restitution causing cryptococcal lymphadenitis dramatically improved by anti-inflammatory therapy. | journal=Scand J Infect Dis | year= 1998 | volume= 30 | issue= 6 | pages= 615-6 | pmid=10225395 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10225395  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9727570">{{cite journal| author=Woods ML, MacGinley R, Eisen DP, Allworth AM| title=HIV combination therapy: partial immune restitution unmasking latent cryptococcal infection. | journal=AIDS | year= 1998 | volume= 12 | issue= 12 | pages= 1491-4 | pmid=9727570 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9727570  }} </ref>


This may result in worsening of the pre-existing condition. Despite this, the duration of starting antifungal therapy when HAART has been initiated still remains unclear.<ref name="pmid20047480">{{cite journal| author=Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, Goldman DL, Graybill JR, Hamill RJ et al.| title=Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the infectious diseases society of america. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2010 | volume= 50 | issue= 3 | pages= 291-322 | pmid=20047480 | doi=10.1086/649858 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20047480  }} </ref>
This may result in worsening of the pre-existing condition. Despite this, the duration of starting [[Antifungal drug|antifungal therapy]] when [[HIV AIDS medical therapy|HAART]] has been initiated still remains unclear.<ref name="pmid20047480">{{cite journal| author=Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, Goldman DL, Graybill JR, Hamill RJ et al.| title=Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the infectious diseases society of america. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2010 | volume= 50 | issue= 3 | pages= 291-322 | pmid=20047480 | doi=10.1086/649858 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20047480  }} </ref>


===Prognosis===
===Prognosis===
The mortality associated with fungal meningitis is high. Better prognosis is associated with early diagnosis, early initiation of the treatment and compliance of patients with medications.
The [[mortality]] associated with fungal meningitis is high. Better prognosis is associated with early diagnosis, early initiation of the treatment and compliance of patients with medications.
====Prognosis of cryptococcal meningitis====
====Prognosis of cryptococcal meningitis====
Prior to the introduction of amphotericin B therapy, [[Cryptococcal Meningitis|cryptococcal meningitis]] was almost always fatal. Now, although most of these patients can be cured with course of intravenous amphotericin B, the optimum duration of therapy is often unclear, and there is still a significant percentage of early deaths and late treatment failure.<ref name="pmid4811791">{{cite journal| author=Diamond RD, Bennett JE| title=Prognostic factors in cryptococcal meningitis. A study in 111 cases. | journal=Ann Intern Med | year= 1974 | volume= 80 | issue= 2 | pages= 176-81 | pmid=4811791 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4811791  }} </ref><ref name="pmid5054723">{{cite journal| author=Lewis JL, Rabinovich S| title=The wide spectrum of cryptococcal infections. | journal=Am J Med | year= 1972 | volume= 53 | issue= 3 | pages= 315-22 | pmid=5054723 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=5054723  }} </ref><ref name="pmid13728643">{{cite journal| author=NEWCOMER VD, STERNBERG TH, WRIGHT ET, REISNER RM, McNALL EG, SORENSEN LJ| title=The treatment of systemic fungus infections with amphotericin B. | journal=Ann N Y Acad Sci | year= 1960 | volume= 89 | issue=  | pages= 221-39 | pmid=13728643 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=13728643  }} </ref>
Prior to the introduction of [[amphotericin B]] therapy, [[Cryptococcal Meningitis|cryptococcal meningitis]] was almost always fatal. Now, although most of these patients can be cured with course of [[Intravenous therapy|intravenous]] [[amphotericin B]], the optimum duration of therapy is often unclear, and there is still a significant percentage of early deaths and late treatment failure.<ref name="pmid4811791">{{cite journal| author=Diamond RD, Bennett JE| title=Prognostic factors in cryptococcal meningitis. A study in 111 cases. | journal=Ann Intern Med | year= 1974 | volume= 80 | issue= 2 | pages= 176-81 | pmid=4811791 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4811791  }} </ref><ref name="pmid5054723">{{cite journal| author=Lewis JL, Rabinovich S| title=The wide spectrum of cryptococcal infections. | journal=Am J Med | year= 1972 | volume= 53 | issue= 3 | pages= 315-22 | pmid=5054723 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=5054723  }} </ref><ref name="pmid13728643">{{cite journal| author=NEWCOMER VD, STERNBERG TH, WRIGHT ET, REISNER RM, McNALL EG, SORENSEN LJ| title=The treatment of systemic fungus infections with amphotericin B. | journal=Ann N Y Acad Sci | year= 1960 | volume= 89 | issue=  | pages= 221-39 | pmid=13728643 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=13728643  }} </ref>


Increasing levels of the following worsens the prognosis of HIV-negative [[Cryptococcal Meningitis|cryptococcal meningitis]] patients with acute/subacute onset
The mortality of [[Cryptococcal Meningitis|cryptococcal meningitis]] is high (10-30%).<ref>Van der Horst CM, Saag MS, Cloud GA et al. (1997) Treatment of cryptococcal meningitis associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med, 337, 15–21.</ref>


*Ratio of CSF glucose/blood glucose  
Increasing levels of the following worsens the prognosis of HIV-negative [[Cryptococcal Meningitis|cryptococcal meningitis]] patients with acute/subacute onset;
*Impaired consciousness and  
 
*Ratio of [[CSF]] [[glucose]]/[[blood glucose]]
*Impaired [[consciousness]] and  
*Hospitalization length
*Hospitalization length
*


Factors associated with a bad prognosis of coccidioidal meningitis are:<ref name="pmid7231152">{{cite journal| author=Bouza E, Dreyer JS, Hewitt WL, Meyer RD| title=Coccidioidal meningitis. An analysis of thirty-one cases and review of the literature. | journal=Medicine (Baltimore) | year= 1981 | volume= 60 | issue= 3 | pages= 139-72 | pmid=7231152 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7231152  }} </ref>
'''Prognosis of [[Coccidioidal Meningitis|coccidioidal meningitis]]'''


hydrocephalus,  
Prognosis is worst in patients with several sites of extrapulmonary dissemination compared to patients who have only [[meningeal]] involvement.<ref name="pmid8443303">{{cite journal| author=Vincent T, Galgiani JN, Huppert M, Salkin D| title=The natural history of coccidioidal meningitis: VA-Armed Forces cooperative studies, 1955-1958. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 16 | issue= 2 | pages= 247-54 | pmid=8443303 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8443303  }} </ref>
non-Caucasian race, or
Prior to the introduction of [[Antifungal drug|antifungal therapy]], [[Coccidioidal Meningitis|coccidioidal meningitis]] was almost always fatal.<ref name="pmid8443303" />
presence of an underlying disease.


The mortality of [[Cryptococcal Meningitis|cryptococcal meningitis]] is high (10-30%).<ref>Van der Horst CM, Saag MS, Cloud GA et al. (1997) Treatment of cryptococcal meningitis associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med, 337, 15–21.</ref>
Factors associated with a bad prognosis of [[coccidiodal meningitis]] are:<ref name="pmid7231152">{{cite journal| author=Bouza E, Dreyer JS, Hewitt WL, Meyer RD| title=Coccidioidal meningitis. An analysis of thirty-one cases and review of the literature. | journal=Medicine (Baltimore) | year= 1981 | volume= 60 | issue= 3 | pages= 139-72 | pmid=7231152 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7231152  }} </ref>
* [[Hydrocephalus]]
 
* Non-caucasian race


====Prognosis of coccidioidal meningitis====
* Presence of an underlying disease
Prognosis is worst in patients with sevral sites of extrapulmonary dissemination compared to patients who have only meningeal involment.<ref name="pmid8443303">{{cite journal| author=Vincent T, Galgiani JN, Huppert M, Salkin D| title=The natural history of coccidioidal meningitis: VA-Armed Forces cooperative studies, 1955-1958. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 16 | issue= 2 | pages= 247-54 | pmid=8443303 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8443303  }} </ref>
Prior to the introduction of antifungal therapy coccidioidal meningitis wa almost always fatal.<ref name="pmid8443303">{{cite journal| author=Vincent T, Galgiani JN, Huppert M, Salkin D| title=The natural history of coccidioidal meningitis: VA-Armed Forces cooperative studies, 1955-1958. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 16 | issue= 2 | pages= 247-54 | pmid=8443303 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8443303  }} </ref>


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 14:48, 4 April 2017

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Rim Halaby; Prince Tano Djan, BSc, MBChB [2]

Overview

If left untreated, neurological complications may occur. Fungal meningitis may be complicated by abscesses, bone invasion, fluid collections, neurological deficits, ocular invasion, papilledema, neurodevelopmental delays in children, and seizures[1][2][3][4][5] The mortality associated with fungal meningitis is high. Better prognosis is associated with early diagnosis, early initiation of the treatment and compliance of patients with medications.

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Natural History

If left untreated, neurological complications may occur.

Complications

The following are some complications that may follow fungal meningitis:[2][3][4][5]

Complications from therapy

Treatment of fungal meningitis in HIV-infected patients receiving HAART, organ transplantation, and pregnancy may result in immune reconstitution syndrome.[6][7][8][9]

This may result in worsening of the pre-existing condition. Despite this, the duration of starting antifungal therapy when HAART has been initiated still remains unclear.[10]

Prognosis

The mortality associated with fungal meningitis is high. Better prognosis is associated with early diagnosis, early initiation of the treatment and compliance of patients with medications.

Prognosis of cryptococcal meningitis

Prior to the introduction of amphotericin B therapy, cryptococcal meningitis was almost always fatal. Now, although most of these patients can be cured with course of intravenous amphotericin B, the optimum duration of therapy is often unclear, and there is still a significant percentage of early deaths and late treatment failure.[11][12][13]

The mortality of cryptococcal meningitis is high (10-30%).[14]

Increasing levels of the following worsens the prognosis of HIV-negative cryptococcal meningitis patients with acute/subacute onset;

Prognosis of coccidioidal meningitis

Prognosis is worst in patients with several sites of extrapulmonary dissemination compared to patients who have only meningeal involvement.[15] Prior to the introduction of antifungal therapy, coccidioidal meningitis was almost always fatal.[15]

Factors associated with a bad prognosis of coccidiodal meningitis are:[16]

  • Non-caucasian race
  • Presence of an underlying disease

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 John Marx. Chapter 107. Central Nervous System Infections. Marx: Rosen's Emergency Medicine, 7th ed. Mosby: Elsevier; 2009.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Farrugia MK, Fogha EP, Miah AR, Yednock J, Palmer HC, Guilfoose J (2016). "Candida meningitis in an immunocompetent patient detected through (1→3)-beta-d-glucan". Int J Infect Dis. 51: 25–26. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2016.08.020. PMID 27590564.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Nyazika TK, Hagen F, Machiridza T, Kutepa M, Masanganise F, Hendrickx M; et al. (2016). "Cryptococcus neoformans population diversity and clinical outcomes of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis patients in Zimbabwe". J Med Microbiol. 65 (11): 1281–1288. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.000354. PMID 27638836.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Leonhard SE, Fritz D, van de Beek D, Brouwer MC (2016). "Cryptococcal meningitis complicating sarcoidosis". Medicine (Baltimore). 95 (35): e4587. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000004587. PMC 5008555. PMID 27583871.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Neo WL, Durisala N, Ho EC (2016). "Reversible hearing loss following cryptococcal meningitis: case study". J Laryngol Otol. 130 (7): 691–5. doi:10.1017/S002221511600801X. PMID 27210482.
  6. ↑ Singh N, Perfect JR (2007). "Immune reconstitution syndrome associated with opportunistic mycoses". Lancet Infect Dis. 7 (6): 395–401. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70085-3. PMID 17521592.
  7. ↑ Jenny-Avital ER, Abadi M (2002). "Immune reconstitution cryptococcosis after initiation of successful highly active antiretroviral therapy". Clin Infect Dis. 35 (12): e128–33. doi:10.1086/344467. PMID 12471589.
  8. ↑ Blanche P, Gombert B, Ginsburg C, Passeron A, Stubei I, Rigolet A; et al. (1998). "HIV combination therapy: immune restitution causing cryptococcal lymphadenitis dramatically improved by anti-inflammatory therapy". Scand J Infect Dis. 30 (6): 615–6. PMID 10225395.
  9. ↑ Woods ML, MacGinley R, Eisen DP, Allworth AM (1998). "HIV combination therapy: partial immune restitution unmasking latent cryptococcal infection". AIDS. 12 (12): 1491–4. PMID 9727570.
  10. ↑ Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, Goldman DL, Graybill JR, Hamill RJ; et al. (2010). "Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the infectious diseases society of america". Clin Infect Dis. 50 (3): 291–322. doi:10.1086/649858. PMID 20047480.
  11. ↑ Diamond RD, Bennett JE (1974). "Prognostic factors in cryptococcal meningitis. A study in 111 cases". Ann Intern Med. 80 (2): 176–81. PMID 4811791.
  12. ↑ Lewis JL, Rabinovich S (1972). "The wide spectrum of cryptococcal infections". Am J Med. 53 (3): 315–22. PMID 5054723.
  13. ↑ NEWCOMER VD, STERNBERG TH, WRIGHT ET, REISNER RM, McNALL EG, SORENSEN LJ (1960). "The treatment of systemic fungus infections with amphotericin B." Ann N Y Acad Sci. 89: 221–39. PMID 13728643.
  14. ↑ Van der Horst CM, Saag MS, Cloud GA et al. (1997) Treatment of cryptococcal meningitis associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med, 337, 15–21.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Vincent T, Galgiani JN, Huppert M, Salkin D (1993). "The natural history of coccidioidal meningitis: VA-Armed Forces cooperative studies, 1955-1958". Clin Infect Dis. 16 (2): 247–54. PMID 8443303.
  16. ↑ Bouza E, Dreyer JS, Hewitt WL, Meyer RD (1981). "Coccidioidal meningitis. An analysis of thirty-one cases and review of the literature". Medicine (Baltimore). 60 (3): 139–72. PMID 7231152.

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