Chitinase: Difference between revisions

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[[Image:Chitinase-1CNS.png|thumb|250 px|Chitinase from barley seeds]]
[[Image:Chitinase-1CNS.png|thumb|454x454px|Chitinase from barley seeds]]
{{enzyme
{{enzyme
| Name = Chitinase
| Name = Chitinase
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| LocusSupplementaryData = -q32
| LocusSupplementaryData = -q32
}}
}}
'''Chitinases''' ({{EC number|3.2.1.14}}, ''chitodextrinase'', ''1,4-beta-poly-N-acetylglucosaminidase'', ''poly-beta-glucosaminidase'', ''beta-1,4-poly-N-acetyl glucosamidinase'', ''poly[1,4-(N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminide)] glycanohydrolase'', ''(1->4)-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-beta-D-glucan glycanohydrolase'') are hydrolytic [[enzyme]]s that break down [[glycosidic bond]]s in [[chitin]].<ref name=Jolles1>{{cite book |vauthors=Jollès P, Muzzarelli RA |year=1999 |title=Chitin and Chitinases |publisher=Birkhäuser |location=Basel |isbn=3-7643-5815-7}}</ref>
'''Chitinases''' (''chitodextrinase'', ''1,4-beta-poly-N-acetylglucosaminidase'', ''poly-beta-glucosaminidase'', ''beta-1,4-poly-N-acetyl glucosamidinase'', ''poly[1,4-(N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminide)] glycanohydrolase'', ''(1->4)-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-beta-D-glucan glycanohydrolase'') are hydrolytic [[enzyme]]s that break down [[glycosidic bond]]s in [[chitin]].<ref name=Jolles1>{{cite book |vauthors=Jollès P, Muzzarelli RA |year=1999 |title=Chitin and Chitinases |publisher=Birkhäuser |location=Basel |isbn=3-7643-5815-7}}</ref>


As chitin is a component of the [[cell wall]]s of [[fungi]] and [[exoskeleton|exoskeletal]] elements of some animals (including worms and arthropods), chitinases are generally found in organisms that either need to reshape their own chitin<ref name="Sami1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sámi L, Pusztahelyi T, Emri T, Varecza Z, Fekete A, Grallert A, Karanyi Z, Kiss L, Pócsi I | title = Autolysis and aging of Penicillium chrysogenum cultures under carbon starvation: Chitinase production and antifungal effect of allosamidin | journal = The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology | volume = 47 | issue = 4 | pages = 201–211 | date = Aug 2001 | pmid = 12483620 | doi = 10.2323/jgam.47.201 }}</ref> or dissolve and digest the chitin of fungi or animals.
As chitin is a component of the [[cell wall]]s of [[fungi]] and [[exoskeleton|exoskeletal]] elements of some animals (including worms and arthropods), chitinases are generally found in organisms that either need to reshape their own chitin<ref name="Sami1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sámi L, Pusztahelyi T, Emri T, Varecza Z, Fekete A, Grallert A, Karanyi Z, Kiss L, Pócsi I | title = Autolysis and aging of Penicillium chrysogenum cultures under carbon starvation: Chitinase production and antifungal effect of allosamidin | journal = The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology | volume = 47 | issue = 4 | pages = 201–211 | date = August 2001 | pmid = 12483620 | doi = 10.2323/jgam.47.201 }}</ref> or dissolve and digest the chitin of fungi or animals.


== Species distribution ==
== Species distribution ==


Chitinivorous organisms include many bacteria<ref name="pmid16332766">{{cite journal | vauthors = Xiao X, Yin X, Lin J, Sun L, You Z, Wang P, Wang F | title = Chitinase genes in lake sediments of Ardley Island, Antarctica | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 71 | issue = 12 | pages = 7904–9 | date = Dec 2005 | pmid = 16332766 | pmc = 1317360 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.71.12.7904-7909.2005 }}</ref> ([[Aeromonadales|Aeromonad]]s, ''[[Bacillus]]'', ''[[Vibrio]]'',<ref name="pmid17933912">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hunt DE, Gevers D, Vahora NM, Polz MF | title = Conservation of the chitin utilization pathway in the Vibrionaceae | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 74 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–51 | date = Jan 2008 | pmid = 17933912 | pmc = 2223224 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.01412-07 }}</ref> among others), which may be [[pathogenic]] or detritivorous.  They attack living [[arthropod]]s, [[zooplankton]] or fungi or they may degrade the remains of these organisms.
Chitinivorous organisms include many bacteria<ref name="pmid16332766">{{cite journal | vauthors = Xiao X, Yin X, Lin J, Sun L, You Z, Wang P, Wang F | title = Chitinase genes in lake sediments of Ardley Island, Antarctica | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 71 | issue = 12 | pages = 7904–9 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16332766 | pmc = 1317360 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.71.12.7904-7909.2005 }}</ref> ([[Aeromonadales|Aeromonad]]s, ''[[Bacillus]]'', ''[[Vibrio]]'',<ref name="pmid17933912">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hunt DE, Gevers D, Vahora NM, Polz MF | title = Conservation of the chitin utilization pathway in the Vibrionaceae | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 74 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–51 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 17933912 | pmc = 2223224 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.01412-07 }}</ref> among others), which may be [[pathogenic]] or detritivorous.  They attack living [[arthropod]]s, [[zooplankton]] or fungi or they may degrade the remains of these organisms.


Fungi, such as ''[[Coccidioides]] immitis'', also possess degradative chitinases related to their role as detritivores and also to their potential as arthropod pathogens.
Fungi, such as ''[[Coccidioides]] immitis'', also possess degradative chitinases related to their role as detritivores and also to their potential as arthropod pathogens.


Chitinases are also present in plants (barley seed chitinase: {{PDB|1CNS}}, {{EC number|3.2.1.14}}); some of these are [[pathogenesis related (PR) proteins]] that are [[Enzyme induction and inhibition|induced]] as part of systemic acquired resistance. Expression is mediated by the NPR1 gene and the salicylic acid pathway, both involved in resistance to fungal and insect attack.  Other plant chitinases may be required for creating fungal symbioses.<ref name="pmid10875337">{{cite journal | vauthors = Salzer P, Bonanomi A, Beyer K, Vögeli-Lange R, Aeschbacher RA, Lange J, Wiemken A, Kim D, Cook DR, Boller T | title = Differential expression of eight chitinase genes in Medicago truncatula roots during mycorrhiza formation, nodulation, and pathogen infection | journal = Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions | volume = 13 | issue = 7 | pages = 763–77 | date = Jul 2000 | pmid = 10875337 | doi = 10.1094/MPMI.2000.13.7.763 }}</ref>
Chitinases are also present in plants (barley seed chitinase: {{PDB|1CNS}}, {{EC number|3.2.1.14}}); some of these are [[pathogenesis related (PR) proteins]] that are [[Enzyme induction and inhibition|induced]] as part of systemic acquired resistance. Expression is mediated by the NPR1 gene and the salicylic acid pathway, both involved in resistance to fungal and insect attack.  Other plant chitinases may be required for creating fungal symbioses.<ref name="pmid10875337">{{cite journal | vauthors = Salzer P, Bonanomi A, Beyer K, Vögeli-Lange R, Aeschbacher RA, Lange J, Wiemken A, Kim D, Cook DR, Boller T | title = Differential expression of eight chitinase genes in Medicago truncatula roots during mycorrhiza formation, nodulation, and pathogen infection | journal = Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions | volume = 13 | issue = 7 | pages = 763–77 | date = July 2000 | pmid = 10875337 | doi = 10.1094/MPMI.2000.13.7.763 }}</ref>


Although mammals do not produce chitin, they have two functional chitinases, Chitotriosidase (CHIT1) and acidic mammalian chitinase (AMCase), as well as chitinase-like proteins (such as [[CHI3L1|YKL-40]]) that have high sequence similarity but lack chitinase activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Eurich K, Segawa M, Toei-Shimizu S, Mizoguchi E | title = Potential role of chitinase 3-like-1 in inflammation-associated carcinogenic changes of epithelial cells | journal = World Journal of Gastroenterology | volume = 15 | issue = 42 | pages = 5249–59 | date = Nov 2009 | pmid = 19908331 | pmc = 2776850 | doi = 10.3748/wjg.15.5249 }}</ref>
Although mammals do not produce chitin, they have two functional chitinases, Chitotriosidase (CHIT1) and acidic mammalian chitinase (AMCase), as well as chitinase-like proteins (such as [[CHI3L1|YKL-40]]) that have high sequence similarity but lack chitinase activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Eurich K, Segawa M, Toei-Shimizu S, Mizoguchi E | title = Potential role of chitinase 3-like-1 in inflammation-associated carcinogenic changes of epithelial cells | journal = World Journal of Gastroenterology | volume = 15 | issue = 42 | pages = 5249–59 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19908331 | pmc = 2776850 | doi = 10.3748/wjg.15.5249 }}</ref>
 
== Classification ==
 
# Endochitinases ({{EC number|3.2.1.14}}) randomly split chitin at internal sites of the chitin microfibril, forming soluble, low molecular mass [[multimer]] products. The multimer products includes di-acetylchitobiose, chitotriose, and chitotetraose, with the dimer being the predominant product.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors= Sahai AS, Manocha MS |date=1993-08-01|title=Chitinases of fungi and plants: their involvement in morphogenesis and host—parasite interaction | journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 317–338 | doi = 10.1111/j.1574-6976.1993.tb00004.x }}</ref>[[File:Endochitinase.png|thumb|679x679px|Endochitinase breaking down chitin into multimer products.|center]]
#Exochitinases have also been divided into two sub categories:
## Chitobiosidases ({{EC number|3.2.1.29}}) act on the non-reducing end of the chitin microfibril, releasing the dimer, di-acetylchitobiose, one by one from the chitin chain. Therefore, there is no release of [[monosaccharide]]s or [[oligosaccharide]]s in this reaction.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Harman GE | title=Chitinolytic Enzymes of Trichoderma harzianum: Purification of Chitobiosidase and Endochitinase | journal=Phytopathology|volume=83|issue=3|pages=|doi=10.1094/phyto-83-313 }}</ref>
## β-1,4- ''N''-acetylglucosaminidases ({{EC number|3.2.1.30}}) split the multimer products, such as di-acetylchitobiose, chitotriose, and chitotetraose, into monomers of [[N-Acetylglucosamine|''N''-acetylglucoseamine]] (GlcNAc).<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Exochitinase.png|thumb|697x697px|Exochitinase breaking down chitin into dimers via chitobiosidase and monomers via β-1,4 N-acetylglucosaminidase.|center]]
 
Chitinases were also classified based on the amino acid sequences, as that would be more helpful in understanding the evolutionary relationships of these enzymes to each other.<ref name="Patil_2000">{{cite journal|last=Patil|first=Reetarani S.|last2=Ghormade|first2=Vandana|last3=Deshpande|first3=Mukund V. | name-list-format = vanc |title=Chitinolytic enzymes: an exploration |journal=Enzyme and Microbial Technology | date =  April 2000 |volume=26|issue=7|pages=473–483|doi=10.1016/s0141-0229(00)00134-4}}</ref> Therefore, the chitinases were grouped into three [[Glycoside hydrolase families|families]]: [[Glycoside hydrolase family 18|18]], [[Glycoside hydrolase family 19|19]], and [[Glycoside hydrolase family 20|20]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Henrissat B | title = A classification of glycosyl hydrolases based on amino acid sequence similarities | journal = The Biochemical Journal | volume = 280 ( Pt 2) | pages = 309–16 | date = December 1991 | pmid = 1747104 | pmc = 1130547 }}</ref> Both families 18 and 19 consists of endochitinases from a variety of different organisms, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, insect, and plants. However, family 19 mainly comprises plant chitinases. Family 20 includes ''N-''acetylglucosaminidase and a similar enzyme, [[N-acetylhexosaminidase|''N''-acetylhexosaminidase]].<ref name="Patil_2000" />
 
And as the gene sequences of the chitinases were known, they were further classified into six classes based on their sequences. Characteristics that determined the classes of chitinases were the N-terminal sequence, localization of the enzyme, [[Isoelectric Ph|isoelectric pH]], [[signal peptide]], and [[inducer]]s.<ref name="Patil_2000" />
 
Class I chitinases had a cysteine-rich N-terminal, leucine- or valine-rich signal peptide, and [[Vacuole|vacuolar]] localization. And then, Class I chitinases were further subdivided based on their acidic or basic nature into Class Ia and Class Ib, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Flach J, Pilet PE, Jollès P | date = August 1992 | title=What's new in chitinase research? | journal = Experientia | volume=48|issue=8|pages=701–716|doi=10.1007/BF02124285 }}</ref> Class 1 chitinases were found to comprise only plant chitinases and mostly endochitinases.
 
Class II chitinases did not have the cysteine-rich N-terminal but had a similar sequence to Class I chitinases. Class II chitinases were found in plants, fungi, and bacteria and mostly consisted of exochitinases.<ref name="Patil_2000" />
 
Class III chitinases did not have similar sequences to chitinases in Class I or Class II.<ref name="Patil_2000" />
 
Class IV chitinases had similar characteristics, including the immunological properties, as Class I chitinases.<ref name="Patil_2000" /> However, Class IV chitinases were significantly smaller in size compared to Class I chitinases.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Collinge|first=David B. |last2=Kragh|first2=Karsten M. |last3=Mikkelsen|first3=Jørn D. |last4=Nielsen|first4=Klaus K. |last5=Rasmussen|first5=Ulla |last6=Vad |first6=Knud| name-list-format = vanc | date=1993-01-01|title=Plant chitinases |journal=The Plant Journal|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=31–40|doi=10.1046/j.1365-313x.1993.t01-1-00999.x }}</ref>
 
Class V and Class VI chitinases are not well characterized. However, one example of a Class V chitinase showed two chitin [[binding domain]]s in tandem, and based on the gene sequence, the cysteine-rich N-terminal seemed to have been lost during evolution, probably due to less selection pressure that caused the catalytic domain to lose its function.<ref name="Patil_2000" />


== Function ==
== Function ==
Like cellulose, chitin is an abundant biopolymer that is relatively resistant to degradation.<ref name=Akaki1>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology |vauthors=Akaki C, Duke GE |year=2005 |volume=283 |issue=4–5 |pages=387–393 |title=Apparent chitin digestibilities in the Eastern screech owl (''Otus asio'') and the American kestrel (''Falco sparverius'') |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-010X(19990301/01)283:4/5<387::AID-JEZ8>3.0.CO;2-W}}</ref>  It is typically not digested by animals, though certain fish are able to digest chitin.<ref name="pmid15556391">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gutowska MA, Drazen JC, Robison BH | title = Digestive chitinolytic activity in marine fishes of Monterey Bay, California | journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A | volume = 139 | issue = 3 | pages = 351–8 | date = Nov 2004 | pmid = 15556391 | doi = 10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.09.020 }}</ref> It is currently assumed that chitin digestion by animals requires bacterial symbionts and lengthy fermentations, similar to cellulase digestion by ruminants.  Nevertheless, chitinases have been isolated from the stomachs of certain mammals, including humans.<ref name="pmid17587796">{{cite journal | vauthors = Paoletti MG, Norberto L, Damini R, Musumeci S | title = Human gastric juice contains chitinase that can degrade chitin | journal = Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism | volume = 51 | issue = 3 | pages = 244–51 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17587796 | doi = 10.1159/000104144 }}</ref>
Like cellulose, chitin is an abundant biopolymer that is relatively resistant to degradation.<ref name=Akaki1>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology |vauthors=Akaki C, Duke GE |year=2005 |volume=283 |issue=4–5 |pages=387–393 |title=Apparent chitin digestibilities in the Eastern screech owl (''Otus asio'') and the American kestrel (''Falco sparverius'') |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-010X(19990301/01)283:4/5<387::AID-JEZ8>3.0.CO;2-W}}</ref>  It is typically not digested by animals, though certain fish are able to digest chitin.<ref name="pmid15556391">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gutowska MA, Drazen JC, Robison BH | title = Digestive chitinolytic activity in marine fishes of Monterey Bay, California | journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology | volume = 139 | issue = 3 | pages = 351–8 | date = November 2004 | pmid = 15556391 | doi = 10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.09.020 }}</ref> It is currently assumed that chitin digestion by animals requires bacterial symbionts and lengthy fermentations, similar to cellulase digestion by ruminants.  Nevertheless, chitinases have been isolated from the stomachs of certain mammals, including humans.<ref name="pmid17587796">{{cite journal | vauthors = Paoletti MG, Norberto L, Damini R, Musumeci S | title = Human gastric juice contains chitinase that can degrade chitin | journal = Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism | volume = 51 | issue = 3 | pages = 244–51 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17587796 | doi = 10.1159/000104144 }}</ref>
Chitinase activity can also be detected in human [[blood]]<ref name="pmid7836450">{{cite journal | vauthors = Renkema GH, Boot RG, Muijsers AO, Donker-Koopman WE, Aerts JM | title = Purification and characterization of human chitotriosidase, a novel member of the chitinase family of proteins | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 270 | issue = 5 | pages = 2198–202 | date = Feb 1995 | pmid = 7836450 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.270.5.2198 }}</ref><ref name="pmid7591134">{{cite journal | vauthors = Escott GM, Adams DJ | title = Chitinase activity in human serum and leukocytes | journal = Infection and Immunity | volume = 63 | issue = 12 | pages = 4770–3 | date = Dec 1995 | pmid = 7591134 | pmc = 173683 | doi =  | url = http://iai.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7591134 }}</ref><ref name="pmid7591134"/> and possibly [[cartilage]].<ref name=Hakala1>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hakala BE, White C, Recklies AD | title = Human cartilage gp-39, a major secretory product of articular chondrocytes and synovial cells, is a mammalian member of a chitinase protein family | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 268 | issue = 34 | pages = 25803–10 | date = Dec 1993 | pmid = 8245017 }}</ref>  As in plant chitinases this may be related to pathogen resistance.<ref name="pmid12071845">{{cite journal | vauthors = Recklies AD, White C, Ling H | title = The chitinase 3-like protein human cartilage glycoprotein 39 (HC-gp39) stimulates proliferation of human connective-tissue cells and activates both extracellular signal-regulated kinase- and protein kinase B-mediated signalling pathways | journal = The Biochemical Journal | volume = 365 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 119–26 | date = Jul 2002 | pmid = 12071845 | pmc = 1222662 | doi = 10.1042/BJ20020075 }}</ref><ref name=Eijk1>{{cite journal | vauthors = van Eijk M, van Roomen CP, Renkema GH, Bussink AP, Andrews L, Blommaart EF, Sugar A, Verhoeven AJ, Boot RG, Aerts JM | title = Characterization of human phagocyte-derived chitotriosidase, a component of innate immunity | journal = International Immunology | volume = 17 | issue = 11 | pages = 1505–12 | date = Nov 2005 | pmid = 16214810 | doi = 10.1093/intimm/dxh328 }}</ref>
 
Chitinase activity can also be detected in human [[blood]]<ref name="pmid7836450">{{cite journal | vauthors = Renkema GH, Boot RG, Muijsers AO, Donker-Koopman WE, Aerts JM | title = Purification and characterization of human chitotriosidase, a novel member of the chitinase family of proteins | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 270 | issue = 5 | pages = 2198–202 | date = February 1995 | pmid = 7836450 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.270.5.2198 }}</ref><ref name="pmid7591134">{{cite journal | vauthors = Escott GM, Adams DJ | title = Chitinase activity in human serum and leukocytes | journal = Infection and Immunity | volume = 63 | issue = 12 | pages = 4770–3 | date = December 1995 | pmid = 7591134 | pmc = 173683 | doi =  | url = http://iai.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7591134 }}</ref><ref name="pmid7591134" /> and possibly [[cartilage]].<ref name="Hakala1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hakala BE, White C, Recklies AD | title = Human cartilage gp-39, a major secretory product of articular chondrocytes and synovial cells, is a mammalian member of a chitinase protein family | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 268 | issue = 34 | pages = 25803–10 | date = December 1993 | pmid = 8245017 }}</ref>  As in plant chitinases this may be related to pathogen resistance.<ref name="pmid12071845">{{cite journal | vauthors = Recklies AD, White C, Ling H | title = The chitinase 3-like protein human cartilage glycoprotein 39 (HC-gp39) stimulates proliferation of human connective-tissue cells and activates both extracellular signal-regulated kinase- and protein kinase B-mediated signalling pathways | journal = The Biochemical Journal | volume = 365 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 119–26 | date = July 2002 | pmid = 12071845 | pmc = 1222662 | doi = 10.1042/BJ20020075 }}</ref><ref name="Eijk1">{{cite journal | vauthors = van Eijk M, van Roomen CP, Renkema GH, Bussink AP, Andrews L, Blommaart EF, Sugar A, Verhoeven AJ, Boot RG, Aerts JM | title = Characterization of human phagocyte-derived chitotriosidase, a component of innate immunity | journal = [[International Immunology]] | volume = 17 | issue = 11 | pages = 1505–12 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16214810 | doi = 10.1093/intimm/dxh328 }}</ref>


== Clinical significance ==
== Clinical significance ==
Chitinases produced in the human body (known as "human chitinases") may be related in response to [[allergies]], and [[asthma]] has been linked to enhanced chitinase expression levels.<ref name="pmid16179638">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bierbaum S, Nickel R, Koch A, Lau S, Deichmann KA, Wahn U, Superti-Furga A, Heinzmann A | title = Polymorphisms and haplotypes of acid mammalian chitinase are associated with bronchial asthma | journal = American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine | volume = 172 | issue = 12 | pages = 1505–9 | date = Dec 2005 | pmid = 16179638 | pmc = 2718453 | doi = 10.1164/rccm.200506-890OC }}</ref><ref name="pmid15996009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhao J, Zhu H, Wong CH, Leung KY, Wong WS | title = Increased lungkine and chitinase levels in allergic airway inflammation: a proteomics approach | journal = Proteomics | volume = 5 | issue = 11 | pages = 2799–807 | date = Jul 2005 | pmid = 15996009 | doi = 10.1002/pmic.200401169 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159614">{{cite journal | vauthors = Elias JA, Homer RJ, Hamid Q, Lee CG | title = Chitinases and chitinase-like proteins in T(H)2 inflammation and asthma | journal = The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology | volume = 116 | issue = 3 | pages = 497–500 | date = Sep 2005 | pmid = 16159614 | doi = 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.06.028 }}</ref><ref name="pmid15192232">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhu Z, Zheng T, Homer RJ, Kim YK, Chen NY, Cohn L, Hamid Q, Elias JA | title = Acidic mammalian chitinase in asthmatic Th2 inflammation and IL-13 pathway activation | journal = Science | volume = 304 | issue = 5677 | pages = 1678–82 | date = Jun 2004 | pmid = 15192232 | doi = 10.1126/science.1095336 }}</ref><ref name=chupp1>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chupp GL, Lee CG, Jarjour N, Shim YM, Holm CT, He S, Dziura JD, Reed J, Coyle AJ, Kiener P, Cullen M, Grandsaigne M, Dombret MC, Aubier M, Pretolani M, Elias JA | title = A chitinase-like protein in the lung and circulation of patients with severe asthma | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 357 | issue = 20 | pages = 2016–27 | date = Nov 2007 | pmid = 18003958 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa073600 }}</ref>
Chitinases produced in the human body (known as "human chitinases") may be related in response to [[allergies]], and [[asthma]] has been linked to enhanced chitinase expression levels.<ref name="pmid16179638">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bierbaum S, Nickel R, Koch A, Lau S, Deichmann KA, Wahn U, Superti-Furga A, Heinzmann A | title = Polymorphisms and haplotypes of acid mammalian chitinase are associated with bronchial asthma | journal = American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine | volume = 172 | issue = 12 | pages = 1505–9 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16179638 | pmc = 2718453 | doi = 10.1164/rccm.200506-890OC }}</ref><ref name="pmid15996009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhao J, Zhu H, Wong CH, Leung KY, Wong WS | title = Increased lungkine and chitinase levels in allergic airway inflammation: a proteomics approach | journal = Proteomics | volume = 5 | issue = 11 | pages = 2799–807 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 15996009 | doi = 10.1002/pmic.200401169 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159614">{{cite journal | vauthors = Elias JA, Homer RJ, Hamid Q, Lee CG | title = Chitinases and chitinase-like proteins in T(H)2 inflammation and asthma | journal = The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology | volume = 116 | issue = 3 | pages = 497–500 | date = September 2005 | pmid = 16159614 | doi = 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.06.028 }}</ref><ref name="pmid15192232">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhu Z, Zheng T, Homer RJ, Kim YK, Chen NY, Cohn L, Hamid Q, Elias JA | title = Acidic mammalian chitinase in asthmatic Th2 inflammation and IL-13 pathway activation | journal = Science | volume = 304 | issue = 5677 | pages = 1678–82 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15192232 | doi = 10.1126/science.1095336 }}</ref><ref name=chupp1>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chupp GL, Lee CG, Jarjour N, Shim YM, Holm CT, He S, Dziura JD, Reed J, Coyle AJ, Kiener P, Cullen M, Grandsaigne M, Dombret MC, Aubier M, Pretolani M, Elias JA | title = A chitinase-like protein in the lung and circulation of patients with severe asthma | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 357 | issue = 20 | pages = 2016–27 | date = November 2007 | pmid = 18003958 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa073600 }}</ref>
 
Human chitinases may explain the link between some of the most common allergies ([[dust mite]]s, mold spores—both of which contain chitin) and [[worm]] ([[helminth]]) infections, as part of one version of the [[hygiene hypothesis]]<ref name="pmid16202576">{{cite journal | vauthors = Maizels RM | title = Infections and allergy - helminths, hygiene and host immune regulation | journal = Current Opinion in Immunology | volume = 17 | issue = 6 | pages = 656–61 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16202576 | doi = 10.1016/j.coi.2005.09.001 }}</ref><ref name="pmid14723608">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hunter MM, McKay DM | title = Review article: helminths as therapeutic agents for inflammatory bowel disease | journal = Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 167–77 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14723608 | doi = 10.1111/j.0269-2813.2004.01803.x }}</ref><ref name="pmid12756068">{{cite journal | vauthors = Palmas C, Gabriele F, Conchedda M, Bortoletti G, Ecca AR | title = Causality or coincidence: may the slow disappearance of helminths be responsible for the imbalances in immune control mechanisms? | journal = Journal of Helminthology | volume = 77 | issue = 2 | pages = 147–53 | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12756068 | doi = 10.1079/JOH2003176 }}</ref> (worms have chitinous mouthparts to hold the intestinal wall). Finally, the link between chitinases and salicylic acid in plants is well established{{explain|reason=What is the content of this link? What does it explain?|date=December 2015}}—but there is a hypothetical link between salicylic acid and allergies in humans.<ref name="pmid1123257">{{cite journal | vauthors = Feingold BF | title = Food additives in clinical medicine | journal = International Journal of Dermatology | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 112–4 | date = March 1975 | pmid = 1123257 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-4362.1975.tb01426.x }}</ref>
 
== Regulation in fungi ==
Regulation varies from species to species, and within an organism, chitinases with different physiological functions would be under different regulation mechanisms. For example, chitinases that are involved in maintenance, such as remodeling the cell wall, are constitutively expressed. However, chitinases that are involved in maintenance, such as remodeling the cell wall, are constitutively expressed. However, chitinases that have specialized functions, such as degrading exogenous chitin or participating in cell division, need [[Spatiotemporal gene expression|spatio-temporal regulation]] of the chitinase activity.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Langner T, Göhre V | title = Fungal chitinases: function, regulation, and potential roles in plant/pathogen interactions | journal = Current Genetics | volume = 62 | issue = 2 | pages = 243–54 | date = May 2016 | pmid = 26527115 | doi = 10.1007/s00294-015-0530-x }}</ref>
 
The regulation of an endochitinase in ''[[Trichoderma]] atroviride'' is dependent on a ''N-''acetylglucosaminidase, and the data indicates a feedback-loop where the break down of chitin produces ''N-''acetylglucosamine, which would be possibly taken up and triggers up-regulation of the chitinbiosidases.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brunner K, Peterbauer CK, Mach RL, Lorito M, Zeilinger S, Kubicek CP | title = The Nag1 N-acetylglucosaminidase of Trichoderma atroviride is essential for chitinase induction by chitin and of major relevance to biocontrol | journal = Current Genetics | volume = 43 | issue = 4 | pages = 289–95 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12748812 | doi = 10.1007/s00294-003-0399-y }}</ref>


Human chitinases may explain the link between some of the most common allergies ([[dust mite]]s, mold spores—both of which contain chitin) and [[worm]] ([[helminth]]) infections, as part of one version of the [[hygiene hypothesis]]<ref name="pmid16202576">{{cite journal | vauthors = Maizels RM | title = Infections and allergy - helminths, hygiene and host immune regulation | journal = Current Opinion in Immunology | volume = 17 | issue = 6 | pages = 656–61 | date = Dec 2005 | pmid = 16202576 | doi = 10.1016/j.coi.2005.09.001 }}</ref><ref name="pmid14723608">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hunter MM, McKay DM | title = Review article: helminths as therapeutic agents for inflammatory bowel disease | journal = Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 167–77 | date = Jan 2004 | pmid = 14723608 | doi = 10.1111/j.0269-2813.2004.01803.x }}</ref><ref name="pmid12756068">{{cite journal | vauthors = Palmas C, Gabriele F, Conchedda M, Bortoletti G, Ecca AR | title = Causality or coincidence: may the slow disappearance of helminths be responsible for the imbalances in immune control mechanisms? | journal = Journal of Helminthology | volume = 77 | issue = 2 | pages = 147–53 | date = Jun 2003 | pmid = 12756068 | doi = 10.1079/JOH2003176 }}</ref> (worms have chitinous mouthparts to hold the intestinal wall). Finally, the link between chitinases and salicylic acid in plants is well established{{explain|reason=What is the content of this link? What does it explain?|date=December 2015}}—but there is a hypothetical link between salicylic acid and allergies in humans.<ref name="pmid1123257">{{cite journal | vauthors = Feingold BF | title = Food additives in clinical medicine | journal = International Journal of Dermatology | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 112–4 | date = Mar 1975 | pmid = 1123257 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-4362.1975.tb01426.x }}</ref>
In ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' and the regulation of ScCts1p (''S. cerevisiae'' chitinase 1), one of the chitinases involved in cell separation after [[cytokinesis]] by degrading the chitin of the [[Septum (cell biology)|primary septum]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuranda MJ, Robbins PW | title = Chitinase is required for cell separation during growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 266 | issue = 29 | pages = 19758–67 | date = October 1991 | pmid = 1918080 }}</ref> As these types of chitinases are important in [[cell division]], there must be tight regulation and activation. Specifically, ''Cts1'' expression has to be activated in daughter cells during late [[mitosis]] and the protein has to localize at the daughter site of the septum.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Colman-Lerner A, Chin TE, Brent R | title = Yeast Cbk1 and Mob2 activate daughter-specific genetic programs to induce asymmetric cell fates | journal = Cell | volume = 107 | issue = 6 | pages = 739–50 | date = December 2001 | pmid = 11747810 }}</ref> And to do this, there must be coordination with other networks controlling the different phases of the cell, such as [[Cdc14|Cdc14 Early Anaphase Release (FEAR)]], [[Mitotic exit|mitotic exit network (MEN)]], and regulation of Ace2p (transcription factor) and cellular morphogenesis (RAM)<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nelson B, Kurischko C, Horecka J, Mody M, Nair P, Pratt L, Zougman A, McBroom LD, Hughes TR, Boone C, Luca FC | title = RAM: a conserved signaling network that regulates Ace2p transcriptional activity and polarized morphogenesis | journal = Molecular Biology of the Cell | volume = 14 | issue = 9 | pages = 3782–803 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 12972564 | doi = 10.1091/mbc.E03-01-0018 | pmc = 196567 }}</ref> signalling networks. Overall, the integration of the different regulatory networks allows for the cell wall degrading chitinase to function dependent on the cell's stage in the cell cycle and at specific locations among the daughter cells.<ref name=":2" />


== Presence in food ==
== Presence in food ==
Chitinases occur naturally in many common foods. Bananas, chestnuts, kiwis, avocados, papaya, and tomatoes, for example, all contain significant levels of chitinase, as defense against fungal and invertebrate attack. Stress, or environmental signals like [[ethylene]] gas, may stimulate increased production of chitinase.
Chitinases occur naturally in many common foods. Bananas, chestnuts, kiwis, avocados, papaya, and tomatoes, for example, all contain significant levels of chitinase, as defense against fungal and invertebrate attack. Stress, or environmental signals like [[ethylene]] gas, may stimulate increased production of chitinase.


Some parts of chitinase molecules, almost identical in structure to [[hevein (protein)|hevein]] or other proteins in rubber latex due to their similar function in plant defense, may trigger an allergic cross-reaction known as [[Latex allergy#Latex-fruit syndrome|latex-fruit syndrome]].<ref>http://dmd.nihs.go.jp/latex/cross-e.html</ref>
Some parts of chitinase molecules, almost identical in structure to [[hevein (protein)|hevein]] or other proteins in rubber latex due to their similar function in plant defense, may trigger an allergic cross-reaction known as [[Latex allergy#Latex-fruit syndrome|latex-fruit syndrome]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Latex-Fruit Syndrome and Class 2 Food Allergy | url = http://dmd.nihs.go.jp/latex/cross-e.html | work = Division of Medical Devices, Japan }}</ref>


== Applications ==
== Applications ==
Chitinases have a wealth of applications, some of which have already been realized by industry. This includes bio-conversion of chitin to useful products such as [[fertilizer]], the production of non-allergenic, non-toxic, [[biocompatible]], and [[biodegradable]] materials ([[contact lenses]], [[artificial skin]] and [[Surgical suture|suture]]s with these qualities are already being produced) and enhancement of [[insecticide]]s and [[fungicide]]s.<ref name="update">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hamid R, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Ahmad MM, Abdin MZ, Musarrat J, Javed S | title = Chitinases: An update | journal = Journal of Pharmacy & BioAllied Sciences | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–9 | date = Jan 2013 | pmid = 23559820 | pmc = 3612335 | doi = 10.4103/0975-7406.106559 }}</ref>
Chitinases have a wealth of applications, some of which have already been realized by industry. This includes bio-conversion of chitin to useful products such as [[fertilizer]], the production of non-allergenic, non-toxic, [[biocompatible]], and [[biodegradable]] materials ([[contact lenses]], [[artificial skin]] and [[Surgical suture|suture]]s with these qualities are already being produced) and enhancement of [[insecticide]]s and [[fungicide]]s.<ref name="update">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hamid R, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Ahmad MM, Abdin MZ, Musarrat J, Javed S | title = Chitinases: An update | journal = Journal of Pharmacy & Bioallied Sciences | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–9 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 23559820 | pmc = 3612335 | doi = 10.4103/0975-7406.106559 }}</ref>


Possible future applications of chitinases are as food additives to increase shelf life, therapeutic agent for asthma and chronic [[rhinosinusitis]], as an anti-fungal remedy, an anti-tumor drug and as a general ingredient to be used in [[protein engineering]].<ref name="update"/>
Possible future applications of chitinases are as food additives to increase shelf life, therapeutic agent for asthma and chronic [[rhinosinusitis]], as an anti-fungal remedy, an anti-tumor drug and as a general ingredient to be used in [[protein engineering]].<ref name="update"/>

Latest revision as of 05:17, 17 June 2018

File:Chitinase-1CNS.png
Chitinase from barley seeds
Chitinase
Identifiers
EC number3.2.1.14
Databases
IntEnzIntEnz view
BRENDABRENDA entry
ExPASyNiceZyme view
KEGGKEGG entry
MetaCycmetabolic pathway
PRIAMprofile
PDB structuresRCSB PDB PDBe PDBsum
chitinase, acidic
Identifiers
SymbolCHIA
Entrez27159
HUGO17432
OMIM606080
RefSeqNM_001040623
UniProtQ9BZP6
Other data
LocusChr. 1 p13.1-21.3
chitinase 1 (chitotriosidase)
Identifiers
SymbolCHIT1
Entrez1118
HUGO1936
OMIM600031
RefSeqNM_003465
UniProtQ13231
Other data
LocusChr. 1 q31-q32

Chitinases (chitodextrinase, 1,4-beta-poly-N-acetylglucosaminidase, poly-beta-glucosaminidase, beta-1,4-poly-N-acetyl glucosamidinase, poly[1,4-(N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminide)] glycanohydrolase, (1->4)-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-beta-D-glucan glycanohydrolase) are hydrolytic enzymes that break down glycosidic bonds in chitin.[1]

As chitin is a component of the cell walls of fungi and exoskeletal elements of some animals (including worms and arthropods), chitinases are generally found in organisms that either need to reshape their own chitin[2] or dissolve and digest the chitin of fungi or animals.

Species distribution

Chitinivorous organisms include many bacteria[3] (Aeromonads, Bacillus, Vibrio,[4] among others), which may be pathogenic or detritivorous. They attack living arthropods, zooplankton or fungi or they may degrade the remains of these organisms.

Fungi, such as Coccidioides immitis, also possess degradative chitinases related to their role as detritivores and also to their potential as arthropod pathogens.

Chitinases are also present in plants (barley seed chitinase: PDB: 1CNS​, EC 3.2.1.14); some of these are pathogenesis related (PR) proteins that are induced as part of systemic acquired resistance. Expression is mediated by the NPR1 gene and the salicylic acid pathway, both involved in resistance to fungal and insect attack. Other plant chitinases may be required for creating fungal symbioses.[5]

Although mammals do not produce chitin, they have two functional chitinases, Chitotriosidase (CHIT1) and acidic mammalian chitinase (AMCase), as well as chitinase-like proteins (such as YKL-40) that have high sequence similarity but lack chitinase activity.[6]

Classification

  1. Endochitinases (EC 3.2.1.14) randomly split chitin at internal sites of the chitin microfibril, forming soluble, low molecular mass multimer products. The multimer products includes di-acetylchitobiose, chitotriose, and chitotetraose, with the dimer being the predominant product.[7]
    File:Endochitinase.png
    Endochitinase breaking down chitin into multimer products.
  2. Exochitinases have also been divided into two sub categories:
    1. Chitobiosidases (EC 3.2.1.29) act on the non-reducing end of the chitin microfibril, releasing the dimer, di-acetylchitobiose, one by one from the chitin chain. Therefore, there is no release of monosaccharides or oligosaccharides in this reaction.[8]
    2. β-1,4- N-acetylglucosaminidases (EC 3.2.1.30) split the multimer products, such as di-acetylchitobiose, chitotriose, and chitotetraose, into monomers of N-acetylglucoseamine (GlcNAc).[7]
File:Exochitinase.png
Exochitinase breaking down chitin into dimers via chitobiosidase and monomers via β-1,4 N-acetylglucosaminidase.

Chitinases were also classified based on the amino acid sequences, as that would be more helpful in understanding the evolutionary relationships of these enzymes to each other.[9] Therefore, the chitinases were grouped into three families: 18, 19, and 20.[10] Both families 18 and 19 consists of endochitinases from a variety of different organisms, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, insect, and plants. However, family 19 mainly comprises plant chitinases. Family 20 includes N-acetylglucosaminidase and a similar enzyme, N-acetylhexosaminidase.[9]

And as the gene sequences of the chitinases were known, they were further classified into six classes based on their sequences. Characteristics that determined the classes of chitinases were the N-terminal sequence, localization of the enzyme, isoelectric pH, signal peptide, and inducers.[9]

Class I chitinases had a cysteine-rich N-terminal, leucine- or valine-rich signal peptide, and vacuolar localization. And then, Class I chitinases were further subdivided based on their acidic or basic nature into Class Ia and Class Ib, respectively.[11] Class 1 chitinases were found to comprise only plant chitinases and mostly endochitinases.

Class II chitinases did not have the cysteine-rich N-terminal but had a similar sequence to Class I chitinases. Class II chitinases were found in plants, fungi, and bacteria and mostly consisted of exochitinases.[9]

Class III chitinases did not have similar sequences to chitinases in Class I or Class II.[9]

Class IV chitinases had similar characteristics, including the immunological properties, as Class I chitinases.[9] However, Class IV chitinases were significantly smaller in size compared to Class I chitinases.[12]

Class V and Class VI chitinases are not well characterized. However, one example of a Class V chitinase showed two chitin binding domains in tandem, and based on the gene sequence, the cysteine-rich N-terminal seemed to have been lost during evolution, probably due to less selection pressure that caused the catalytic domain to lose its function.[9]

Function

Like cellulose, chitin is an abundant biopolymer that is relatively resistant to degradation.[13] It is typically not digested by animals, though certain fish are able to digest chitin.[14] It is currently assumed that chitin digestion by animals requires bacterial symbionts and lengthy fermentations, similar to cellulase digestion by ruminants. Nevertheless, chitinases have been isolated from the stomachs of certain mammals, including humans.[15]

Chitinase activity can also be detected in human blood[16][17][17] and possibly cartilage.[18] As in plant chitinases this may be related to pathogen resistance.[19][20]

Clinical significance

Chitinases produced in the human body (known as "human chitinases") may be related in response to allergies, and asthma has been linked to enhanced chitinase expression levels.[21][22][23][24][25]

Human chitinases may explain the link between some of the most common allergies (dust mites, mold spores—both of which contain chitin) and worm (helminth) infections, as part of one version of the hygiene hypothesis[26][27][28] (worms have chitinous mouthparts to hold the intestinal wall). Finally, the link between chitinases and salicylic acid in plants is well established[further explanation needed]—but there is a hypothetical link between salicylic acid and allergies in humans.[29]

Regulation in fungi

Regulation varies from species to species, and within an organism, chitinases with different physiological functions would be under different regulation mechanisms. For example, chitinases that are involved in maintenance, such as remodeling the cell wall, are constitutively expressed. However, chitinases that are involved in maintenance, such as remodeling the cell wall, are constitutively expressed. However, chitinases that have specialized functions, such as degrading exogenous chitin or participating in cell division, need spatio-temporal regulation of the chitinase activity.[30]

The regulation of an endochitinase in Trichoderma atroviride is dependent on a N-acetylglucosaminidase, and the data indicates a feedback-loop where the break down of chitin produces N-acetylglucosamine, which would be possibly taken up and triggers up-regulation of the chitinbiosidases.[31]

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the regulation of ScCts1p (S. cerevisiae chitinase 1), one of the chitinases involved in cell separation after cytokinesis by degrading the chitin of the primary septum.[32] As these types of chitinases are important in cell division, there must be tight regulation and activation. Specifically, Cts1 expression has to be activated in daughter cells during late mitosis and the protein has to localize at the daughter site of the septum.[33] And to do this, there must be coordination with other networks controlling the different phases of the cell, such as Cdc14 Early Anaphase Release (FEAR), mitotic exit network (MEN), and regulation of Ace2p (transcription factor) and cellular morphogenesis (RAM)[34] signalling networks. Overall, the integration of the different regulatory networks allows for the cell wall degrading chitinase to function dependent on the cell's stage in the cell cycle and at specific locations among the daughter cells.[30]

Presence in food

Chitinases occur naturally in many common foods. Bananas, chestnuts, kiwis, avocados, papaya, and tomatoes, for example, all contain significant levels of chitinase, as defense against fungal and invertebrate attack. Stress, or environmental signals like ethylene gas, may stimulate increased production of chitinase.

Some parts of chitinase molecules, almost identical in structure to hevein or other proteins in rubber latex due to their similar function in plant defense, may trigger an allergic cross-reaction known as latex-fruit syndrome.[35]

Applications

Chitinases have a wealth of applications, some of which have already been realized by industry. This includes bio-conversion of chitin to useful products such as fertilizer, the production of non-allergenic, non-toxic, biocompatible, and biodegradable materials (contact lenses, artificial skin and sutures with these qualities are already being produced) and enhancement of insecticides and fungicides.[36]

Possible future applications of chitinases are as food additives to increase shelf life, therapeutic agent for asthma and chronic rhinosinusitis, as an anti-fungal remedy, an anti-tumor drug and as a general ingredient to be used in protein engineering.[36]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Jollès P, Muzzarelli RA (1999). Chitin and Chitinases. Basel: Birkhäuser. ISBN 3-7643-5815-7.
  2. ↑ Sámi L, Pusztahelyi T, Emri T, Varecza Z, Fekete A, Grallert A, Karanyi Z, Kiss L, Pócsi I (August 2001). "Autolysis and aging of Penicillium chrysogenum cultures under carbon starvation: Chitinase production and antifungal effect of allosamidin". The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology. 47 (4): 201–211. doi:10.2323/jgam.47.201. PMID 12483620.
  3. ↑ Xiao X, Yin X, Lin J, Sun L, You Z, Wang P, Wang F (December 2005). "Chitinase genes in lake sediments of Ardley Island, Antarctica". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 71 (12): 7904–9. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.12.7904-7909.2005. PMC 1317360. PMID 16332766.
  4. ↑ Hunt DE, Gevers D, Vahora NM, Polz MF (January 2008). "Conservation of the chitin utilization pathway in the Vibrionaceae". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 74 (1): 44–51. doi:10.1128/AEM.01412-07. PMC 2223224. PMID 17933912.
  5. ↑ Salzer P, Bonanomi A, Beyer K, Vögeli-Lange R, Aeschbacher RA, Lange J, Wiemken A, Kim D, Cook DR, Boller T (July 2000). "Differential expression of eight chitinase genes in Medicago truncatula roots during mycorrhiza formation, nodulation, and pathogen infection". Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions. 13 (7): 763–77. doi:10.1094/MPMI.2000.13.7.763. PMID 10875337.
  6. ↑ Eurich K, Segawa M, Toei-Shimizu S, Mizoguchi E (November 2009). "Potential role of chitinase 3-like-1 in inflammation-associated carcinogenic changes of epithelial cells". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 15 (42): 5249–59. doi:10.3748/wjg.15.5249. PMC 2776850. PMID 19908331.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Sahai AS, Manocha MS (1993-08-01). "Chitinases of fungi and plants: their involvement in morphogenesis and host—parasite interaction". FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 11 (4): 317–338. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.1993.tb00004.x.
  8. ↑ Harman GE. "Chitinolytic Enzymes of Trichoderma harzianum: Purification of Chitobiosidase and Endochitinase". Phytopathology. 83 (3). doi:10.1094/phyto-83-313.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Patil RS, Ghormade V, Deshpande MV (April 2000). "Chitinolytic enzymes: an exploration". Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 26 (7): 473–483. doi:10.1016/s0141-0229(00)00134-4.
  10. ↑ Henrissat B (December 1991). "A classification of glycosyl hydrolases based on amino acid sequence similarities". The Biochemical Journal. 280 ( Pt 2): 309–16. PMC 1130547. PMID 1747104.
  11. ↑ Flach J, Pilet PE, Jollès P (August 1992). "What's new in chitinase research?". Experientia. 48 (8): 701–716. doi:10.1007/BF02124285.
  12. ↑ Collinge DB, Kragh KM, Mikkelsen JD, Nielsen KK, Rasmussen U, Vad K (1993-01-01). "Plant chitinases". The Plant Journal. 3 (1): 31–40. doi:10.1046/j.1365-313x.1993.t01-1-00999.x.
  13. ↑ Akaki C, Duke GE (2005). "Apparent chitin digestibilities in the Eastern screech owl (Otus asio) and the American kestrel (Falco sparverius)". Journal of Experimental Zoology. 283 (4–5): 387–393. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-010X(19990301/01)283:4/5<387::AID-JEZ8>3.0.CO;2-W.
  14. ↑ Gutowska MA, Drazen JC, Robison BH (November 2004). "Digestive chitinolytic activity in marine fishes of Monterey Bay, California". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology. 139 (3): 351–8. doi:10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.09.020. PMID 15556391.
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