Gastric outlet obstruction: Difference between revisions

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__NOTOC__
__NOTOC__
{{SI}}
{{Gastric outlet obstruction}}
{{CMG}} {{AE}}  
{{CMG}};{{AE}}{{Cherry}}


{{SK}} GOO
==Overview==
==Overview==
GASTRIC OUTLET OBSTRUCTION: Pyloric obstruction
Gastric outlet obstruction (GOO) occurs due to pathologies that cause intrinsic or extrinsic obstruction of the pylorus and antrum. Infiltration, scar formation or [[inflammation]] of the gastric outlet leads to intrinsic obstruction, while malignancy of neighboring structures such as the pancreas, gallbladder, liver and duodenum may lead to extrinsic [[obstruction]] of the gastric outlet. Common causes of GOO include [[Peptic ulcer|peptic ulcer disease (PUD)]], gastric polyps, caustic ingestion, duodenal stricture, systemic [[amyloidosis]] of the [[gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal tract,]] eosinophillic [[gastroenteritis]] and obstruction by [[Gallstone disease|gallstones.]] Five percent of all cases of [[Peptic ulcer|peptic ulcer disease]] (which is the most common benign cause of GOO) worldwide, develop gastric outlet obstruction. GOO presents as nausea, vomiting, dehydration, electrolyte abnormalities, weight loss, malnutrition, fullness of [[epigastrium]], early satiety and bloating. Laboratory studies of patients may show [[Hypokalemia|hypokalemic]] [[Hypochloremia|hypochloremic]] [[metabolic alkalosis]]  which is a characteristic feature due to [[Nausea and vomiting|vomiting]]. In case of of GOO due to suspected PUD, tests for H pylori should also be performed in patients. [[Upper gastrointestinal series|Barium upper GI studies]]<nowiki/> help in the determination of site of [[obstruction]], visualization of the [[Stomach|gastric]] silhouette, presence of gastric [[dilation]], pylorus narrowing, presence of ulcers, tumors and differentiation from gastroparesis. [[Esophagogastroduodenoscopy|Upper endoscopy]] performed in patients may help with visualization of the [[Stomach|gastric]] outlet, biopsy sampling in case of [[Lumen (anatomy)|intraluminal]] [[pathology]] and thereby helps rule out the presence of [[Cancer|malignancy]] in [[Patient|patients]] with symptoms of [[Peptic ulcer|peptic ulcer disease]]. Surgery is the primary modality of treatment for [[Patient|patients]] with GOO. It is required for more than 75 percent of patients with [[Scar|scarring]], [[fibrosis]], and [[Tumor|tumors]]. The aims of surgery in case of GOO include relief of [[obstruction]], relief in [[Patient|patients]] with failure to respond to medical therapy or failure to improve even after 72 hours of therapy and correction of [[Peptic ulcer|PUD]] symptoms. Various types of surgical procedures performed in cases of GOO are [[vagotomy]] and [[antrectomy]], [[gastrojejunostomy]] ([[vagotomy]] and [[antrectomy]] with Billroth II reconstruction), balloon [[Dilation|dilatation]], pylorotomy, pyloroplasty and laparoscopic techniques. Care must be taken to look out for various complications arising after [[surgery]] such as perforation, anastomotic leak, dilation and dysmotility of [[stomach]], edema of the [[Stomach|gastric]] wall and postgastrectomy syndromes.
 
Gastric outlet obstruction (GOO,) is the result of any pathology that provides mechanical obstruction to emptying of gastric contents.
Two important causes of GOO include:
Benign: 37 percent of cases, includes peptic disease
Malignant: 53 percent of cases
 
Location of the stomach: Left upper quadrant of the abdomen
Parts of the stomach:
Cardia
Body
Antrum
Pylorus
==Historical Perspective==
 
==Classification==
==Classification==
Gastric outlet obstruction (GOO) may be due to any underlying condition that results in mechanical [[obstruction]] to emptying of [[Stomach|gastric]] contents. GOO is classified based on the underlying cause into [[benign]] GOO and [[malignant]] GOO. Statistically, [[benign]] GOO comprises 37 percent of cases and includes [[Peptic ulcer|peptic ulcer disease]] whereas malignant GOO comprises of the remaining 53 percent of cases.


==Pathophysiology==
==Pathophysiology==
Gastric Outlet Obstruction (GOO) may be caused by intrinsic or extrinsic pathologies that involve the [[antrum]] and the [[pylorus]].
It is understood that GOO is the result of multiple intrinsic (lumen & wall) or extrinsic (involving neighbouring structures) pathologies that involve the [[antrum]] and the [[pylorus]].
* Intrinsic [[obstruction]]:  
* Intrinsic [[obstruction]]: Conditions involving infiltration, scar formation or [[inflammation]] of [[antrum]] and the [[pylorus]] may lead to intrinsic obstruction and GOO.
** Infiltration, scar formation or [[inflammation]] of these structures leads to intrinsic obstruction, resulting in GOO.
* Extrinsic [[obstruction]]: Any [[malignancy]] of neighboring structures such as [[duodenum]], [[liver]], [[gallbladder]] and [[pancreas]] may lead to extrinsic [[obstruction]] of gastric outlet.
* Extrinsic [[obstruction]]:  
** [[Cancer|Malignancy]] of any of these neighboring structures may lead to extrinsic [[obstruction]] of the gastric outlet:
*** [[Duodenum]]
*** [[Liver]]  
*** [[Gallbladder]]  
*** [[Pancreas]]


==Causes==
==Causes==
Causes of GOO may be classified as [[benign]] and [[malignant]].


==== Benign causes ====
==== Benign causes ====
[[Acquired disorder|Acquired]]:<ref name="pmid7235767">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bradley EL, Clements JL |title=Idiopathic duodenal obstruction: an unappreciated complication of pancreatitis |journal=Ann. Surg. |volume=193 |issue=5 |pages=638–48 |year=1981 |pmid=7235767 |pmc=1345138 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1539568">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zargar SA, Kochhar R, Nagi B, Mehta S, Mehta SK |title=Ingestion of strong corrosive alkalis: spectrum of injury to upper gastrointestinal tract and natural history |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=337–41 |year=1992 |pmid=1539568 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15332026">{{cite journal |vauthors=Poley JW, Steyerberg EW, Kuipers EJ, Dees J, Hartmans R, Tilanus HW, Siersema PD |title=Ingestion of acid and alkaline agents: outcome and prognostic value of early upper endoscopy |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=372–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15332026 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10079337">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ciftci AO, Senocak ME, Büyükpamukçu N, Hiçsönmez A |title=Gastric outlet obstruction due to corrosive ingestion: incidence and outcome |journal=Pediatr. Surg. Int. |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=88–91 |year=1999 |pmid=10079337 |doi=10.1007/s003830050523 |url=}}</ref>  
Benign causes of GOO can either be congenital or acquired. The [[Acquired disorder|acquired]] causes of GOO may further be categorized into acute or chronic. The acquired acute causes of GOO results from [[edema]] and [[inflammation]] of [[antrum]] and the [[pylorus]]. The acquired chronic causes of GOO results from intrinsic [[obstruction]] due to [[fibrosis]] and [[scar]] formation. In general, benign causes of GOO include:<ref name="pmid7235767">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bradley EL, Clements JL |title=Idiopathic duodenal obstruction: an unappreciated complication of pancreatitis |journal=Ann. Surg. |volume=193 |issue=5 |pages=638–48 |year=1981 |pmid=7235767 |pmc=1345138 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1539568">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zargar SA, Kochhar R, Nagi B, Mehta S, Mehta SK |title=Ingestion of strong corrosive alkalis: spectrum of injury to upper gastrointestinal tract and natural history |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=337–41 |year=1992 |pmid=1539568 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15332026">{{cite journal |vauthors=Poley JW, Steyerberg EW, Kuipers EJ, Dees J, Hartmans R, Tilanus HW, Siersema PD |title=Ingestion of acid and alkaline agents: outcome and prognostic value of early upper endoscopy |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=372–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15332026 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10079337">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ciftci AO, Senocak ME, Büyükpamukçu N, Hiçsönmez A |title=Gastric outlet obstruction due to corrosive ingestion: incidence and outcome |journal=Pediatr. Surg. Int. |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=88–91 |year=1999 |pmid=10079337 |doi=10.1007/s003830050523 |url=}}</ref>  
* [[Acute (medicine)|Acute]]- [[edema]] and [[inflammation]]  
* [[GI]] causes such as [[Peptic ulcer|PUD]]: approximately 5% cases (most commonly affecting [[pylorus]] and initial part of the [[duodenum]]), [[Fundic gland polyposis|gastric polyps]], [[Stricture|duodenal stricture]], gastro-[[Duodenum|duodenal]] [[tuberculosis]], [[Caustic|caustic ingestion]], obstruction by [[Gallstone disease|gallstones]] (Bouveret syndrome), and [[pancreatic pseudocyst]] formation.
* [[Chronic (medical)|Chronic]]- due to intrinsic [[obstruction]] as a result of [[fibrosis]] and [[scar]] formation
[[Congenital]] causes of gastric outlet obstruction include:<ref name="pmid18668780">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kreel L, Ellis H |title=Pyloric stenosis in adults: A clinical and radiological study of 100 consecutive patients |journal=Gut |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=253–61 |year=1965 |pmid=18668780 |pmc=1552275 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12145672">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gheorghe L, Băncilă I, Gheorghe C, Herlea V, Vasilescu C, Aposteanu G |title=Antro-duodenal tuberculosis causing gastric outlet obstruction--a rare presentation of a protean disease |journal=Rom J Gastroenterol |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=149–52 |year=2002 |pmid=12145672 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  
** [[Peptic ulcer|PUD]]: 5% cases (most commonly affecting [[pylorus]] and initial part of the [[duodenum]])
* [[Pyloric stenosis]]: It is due to [[Hypertrophy (medical)|hypertrophy]] of [[Pyloric antrum|pyloric]] [[Smooth muscle|smooth muscles]] (circular). [[Pyloric stenosis]] is the most common cause of GOO in children with boys more commonly affected than girls.
** [[Polyps|Gastric polyps]]<ref name="pmid7129059">{{cite journal |vauthors=Miner PB, Harri JE, McPhee MS |title=Intermittent gastric outlet obstruction from a pedunculated gastric polyp |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=219–20 |year=1982 |pmid=7129059 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12831404">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gencosmanoglu R, Sen-Oran E, Kurtkaya-Yapicier O, Tozun N |title=Antral hyperplastic polyp causing intermittent gastric outlet obstruction: case report |journal=BMC Gastroenterol |volume=3 |issue= |pages=16 |year=2003 |pmid=12831404 |pmc=166166 |doi=10.1186/1471-230X-3-16 |url=}}</ref>  
** [[Caustic|Caustic ingestion]]<ref name="pmid2753330">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zargar SA, Kochhar R, Nagi B, Mehta S, Mehta SK |title=Ingestion of corrosive acids. Spectrum of injury to upper gastrointestinal tract and natural history |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=97 |issue=3 |pages=702–7 |year=1989 |pmid=2753330 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** [[Stenosis|Duodenal stricture]] <ref name="pmid2000520">{{cite journal |vauthors=Taylor SM, Adams DB, Anderson MC |title=Duodenal stricture: a complication of chronic fibrocalcific pancreatitis |journal=South. Med. J. |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=338–41 |year=1991 |pmid=2000520 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** Systemic [[amyloidosis]] of the [[gastrointestinal tract]] <ref name="pmid8331978">{{cite journal |vauthors=Menke DM, Kyle RA, Fleming CR, Wolfe JT, Kurtin PJ, Oldenburg WA |title=Symptomatic gastric amyloidosis in patients with primary systemic amyloidosis |journal=Mayo Clin. Proc. |volume=68 |issue=8 |pages=763–7 |year=1993 |pmid=8331978 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9891699">{{cite journal |vauthors=Friedman S, Janowitz HD |title=Systemic amyloidosis and the gastrointestinal tract |journal=Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=595–614, vi |year=1998 |pmid=9891699 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** Eosinophillic [[gastroenteritis]] <ref name="pmid10660821">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khan S, Orenstein SR |title=Eosinophilic gastroenteritis masquerading as pyloric stenosis |journal=Clin Pediatr (Phila) |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=55–7 |year=2000 |pmid=10660821 |doi=10.1177/000992280003900109 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11400803">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chaudhary R, Shrivastava RK, Mukhopadhyay HG, Diwan RN, Das AK |title=Eosinophilic gastritis--an unusual cause of gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Indian J Gastroenterol |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=110 |year=2001 |pmid=11400803 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17614041">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tursi A, Rella G, Inchingolo CD, Maiorano M |title=Gastric outlet obstruction due to gastroduodenal eosinophilic gastroenteritis |journal=Endoscopy |volume=39 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=E184 |year=2007 |pmid=17614041 |doi=10.1055/s-2006-945125 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14669340">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen MJ, Chu CH, Lin SC, Shih SC, Wang TE |title=Eosinophilic gastroenteritis: clinical experience with 15 patients |journal=World J. Gastroenterol. |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=2813–6 |year=2003 |pmid=14669340 |pmc=4612059 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8420276">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee CM, Changchien CS, Chen PC, Lin DY, Sheen IS, Wang CS, Tai DI, Sheen-Chen SM, Chen WJ, Wu CS |title=Eosinophilic gastroenteritis: 10 years experience |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=70–4 |year=1993 |pmid=8420276 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** [[Obstruction]] by [[Gallstone disease|gallstones]] (Bouveret syndrome)
** Complication of [[acute pancreatitis]]: [[pancreatic pseudocyst]] formation<ref name="pmid6732492">{{cite journal |vauthors=Aranha GV, Prinz RA, Greenlee HB, Freeark RJ |title=Gastric outlet and duodenal obstruction from inflammatory pancreatic disease |journal=Arch Surg |volume=119 |issue=7 |pages=833–5 |year=1984 |pmid=6732492 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid4811173">{{cite journal |vauthors=Agrawal NM, Gyr N, McDowell W, Font RG |title=Intestinal obstruction due to acute pancreatitis. Case report and review of literature |journal=Am J Dig Dis |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=179–85 |year=1974 |pmid=4811173 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** [[Chronic pancreatitis]] <ref name="pmid2658160">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bradley EL |title=Complications of chronic pancreatitis |journal=Surg. Clin. North Am. |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=481–97 |year=1989 |pmid=2658160 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19629001">{{cite journal |vauthors=Levenick JM, Gordon SR, Sutton JE, Suriawinata A, Gardner TB |title=A comprehensive, case-based review of groove pancreatitis |journal=Pancreas |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=e169–75 |year=2009 |pmid=19629001 |doi=10.1097/MPA.0b013e3181ac73f1 |url=}}</ref>
** [[Sarcoidosis]] of the [[Gastrointestinal tract|GIT]] <ref name="pmid2180656">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stampfl DA, Grimm IS, Barbot DJ, Rosato FE, Gordon SJ |title=Sarcoidosis causing duodenal obstruction. Case report and review of gastrointestinal manifestations |journal=Dig. Dis. Sci. |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=526–32 |year=1990 |pmid=2180656 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid807981">{{cite journal |vauthors=Johnson FE, Humbert JR, Kuzela DC, Todd JK, Lilly JR |title=Gastric outlet obstruction due to X-linked chronic granulomatous disease |journal=Surgery |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=217–23 |year=1975 |pmid=807981 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid6623357">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mulholland MW, Delaney JP, Simmons RL |title=Gastrointestinal complications of chronic granulomatous disease: surgical implications |journal=Surgery |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=569–75 |year=1983 |pmid=6623357 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16970572">{{cite journal |vauthors=Huang A, Abbasakoor F, Vaizey CJ |title=Gastrointestinal manifestations of chronic granulomatous disease |journal=Colorectal Dis |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=637–44 |year=2006 |pmid=16970572 |doi=10.1111/j.1463-1318.2006.01030.x |url=}}</ref>
** [[Bezoar|Bezoars]]<ref name="pmid9291515">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bakken DA, Abramo TJ |title=Gastric lactobezoar: a rare cause of gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Pediatr Emerg Care |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=264–7 |year=1997 |pmid=9291515 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10328129">{{cite journal |vauthors=De Backer A, Van Nooten V, Vandenplas Y |title=Huge gastric trichobezoar in a 10-year-old girl: case report with emphasis on endoscopy in diagnosis and therapy |journal=J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=513–5 |year=1999 |pmid=10328129 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9663194">{{cite journal |vauthors=Phillips MR, Zaheer S, Drugas GT |title=Gastric trichobezoar: case report and literature review |journal=Mayo Clin. Proc. |volume=73 |issue=7 |pages=653–6 |year=1998 |pmid=9663194 |doi=10.1016/S0025-6196(11)64889-1 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14738689">{{cite journal |vauthors=White NB, Gibbs KE, Goodwin A, Teixeira J |title=Gastric bezoar complicating laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding, and review of literature |journal=Obes Surg |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=948–50 |year=2003 |pmid=14738689 |doi=10.1381/096089203322618849 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16448609">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zapata R, Castillo F, Córdova A |title=[Gastric food bezoar as a complication of bariatric surgery. Case report and review of the literature] |language=Spanish; Castilian |journal=Gastroenterol Hepatol |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=77–80 |year=2006 |pmid=16448609 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** [[Crohn's disease]] involving the [[duodenum]] <ref name="pmid2919581">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nugent FW, Roy MA |title=Duodenal Crohn's disease: an analysis of 89 cases |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=249–54 |year=1989 |pmid=2919581 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16278730">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kefalas CH |title=Gastroduodenal Crohn's disease |journal=Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=147–51 |year=2003 |pmid=16278730 |pmc=1201000 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9360875">{{cite journal |vauthors=Matsui T, Hatakeyama S, Ikeda K, Yao T, Takenaka K, Sakurai T |title=Long-term outcome of endoscopic balloon dilation in obstructive gastroduodenal Crohn's disease |journal=Endoscopy |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=640–5 |year=1997 |pmid=9360875 |doi=10.1055/s-2007-1004271 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid6106466">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fitzgibbons TJ, Green G, Silberman H, Eliasoph J, Halls JM, Yellin AE |title=Management of Crohn's disease involving the duodenum, including duodenal cutaneous fistula |journal=Arch Surg |volume=115 |issue=9 |pages=1022–8 |year=1980 |pmid=6106466 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
**[[Stomach|Gastro]]-[[Duodenum|duodenal]] [[tuberculosis]]<ref name="pmid12703983">{{cite journal |vauthors=Amarapurkar DN, Patel ND, Amarapurkar AD |title=Primary gastric tuberculosis--report of 5 cases |journal=BMC Gastroenterol |volume=3 |issue= |pages=6 |year=2003 |pmid=12703983 |pmc=155648 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15540690">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rao YG, Pande GK, Sahni P, Chattopadhyay TK |title=Gastroduodenal tuberculosis management guidelines, based on a large experience and a review of the literature |journal=Can J Surg |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=364–8 |year=2004 |pmid=15540690 |pmc=3211943 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16217956">{{cite journal |vauthors=Padussis J, Loffredo B, McAneny D |title=Minimally invasive management of obstructive gastroduodenal tuberculosis |journal=Am Surg |volume=71 |issue=8 |pages=698–700 |year=2005 |pmid=16217956 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8677960">{{cite journal |vauthors=Di Placido R, Pietroletti R, Leardi S, Simi M |title=Primary gastroduodenal tuberculous infection presenting as pyloric outlet obstruction |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=807–8 |year=1996 |pmid=8677960 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3605037">{{cite journal |vauthors=Subei I, Attar B, Schmitt G, Levendoglu H |title=Primary gastric tuberculosis: a case report and literature review |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=82 |issue=8 |pages=769–72 |year=1987 |pmid=3605037 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
Congenital:<ref name="pmid18668780">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kreel L, Ellis H |title=Pyloric stenosis in adults: A clinical and radiological study of 100 consecutive patients |journal=Gut |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=253–61 |year=1965 |pmid=18668780 |pmc=1552275 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12145672">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gheorghe L, Băncilă I, Gheorghe C, Herlea V, Vasilescu C, Aposteanu G |title=Antro-duodenal tuberculosis causing gastric outlet obstruction--a rare presentation of a protean disease |journal=Rom J Gastroenterol |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=149–52 |year=2002 |pmid=12145672 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* [[Pyloric stenosis]]: 
** Most common cause in children 
** More common in boys>girls
** Due to [[Hypertrophy (medical)|hypertrophy]] of [[Pyloric antrum|pyloric]] circular [[Smooth muscle|smooth muscles]] 
* [[Congenital disorder|Congenital]] [[Duodenum|duodenal]] webs<ref name="pmid10876738">{{cite journal |vauthors=Adebamowo CA, Oduntan O |title=Duodenal web causing gastric outlet obstruction in an adult |journal=West Afr J Med |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=73–4 |year=1999 |pmid=10876738 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* [[Annular pancreas]]<ref name="pmid7771437">{{cite journal |vauthors=Urayama S, Kozarek R, Ball T, Brandabur J, Traverso L, Ryan J, Wechter D |title=Presentation and treatment of annular pancreas in an adult population |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=90 |issue=6 |pages=995–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7771437 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  
* [[Annular pancreas]]<ref name="pmid7771437">{{cite journal |vauthors=Urayama S, Kozarek R, Ball T, Brandabur J, Traverso L, Ryan J, Wechter D |title=Presentation and treatment of annular pancreas in an adult population |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=90 |issue=6 |pages=995–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7771437 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  


==== Malignant causes ====
==== Malignant causes ====
* [[Cancer|Malignancies]] involving neighboring structures:<ref name="pmid7572886">{{cite journal |vauthors=Johnson CD |title=Gastric outlet obstruction malignant until proved otherwise |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=90 |issue=10 |pages=1740 |year=1995 |pmid=7572886 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7572891">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shone DN, Nikoomanesh P, Smith-Meek MM, Bender JS |title=Malignancy is the most common cause of gastric outlet obstruction in the era of H2 blockers |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=90 |issue=10 |pages=1769–70 |year=1995 |pmid=7572891 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2207566">{{cite journal |vauthors=Johnson CD, Ellis H |title=Gastric outlet obstruction now predicts malignancy |journal=Br J Surg |volume=77 |issue=9 |pages=1023–4 |year=1990 |pmid=2207566 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11808968">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tendler DA |title=Malignant gastric outlet obstruction: bridging another divide |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=4–6 |year=2002 |pmid=11808968 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2002.05391.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12471549">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jeong HY, Yang HW, Seo SW, Seong JK, Na BK, Lee BS, Song GS, Park HS, Lee HY |title=Adenocarcinoma arising from an ectopic pancreas in the stomach |journal=Endoscopy |volume=34 |issue=12 |pages=1014–7 |year=2002 |pmid=12471549 |doi=10.1055/s-2002-35836 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15221920">{{cite journal |vauthors=Emerson L, Layfield LJ, Rohr LR, Dayton MT |title=Adenocarcinoma arising in association with gastric heterotopic pancreas: A case report and review of the literature |journal=J Surg Oncol |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=53–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15221920 |doi=10.1002/jso.20087 |url=}}</ref>
* [[Cancer|Malignancies]] involving neighboring structures may lead to GOO:<ref name="pmid7572886">{{cite journal |vauthors=Johnson CD |title=Gastric outlet obstruction malignant until proved otherwise |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=90 |issue=10 |pages=1740 |year=1995 |pmid=7572886 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7572891">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shone DN, Nikoomanesh P, Smith-Meek MM, Bender JS |title=Malignancy is the most common cause of gastric outlet obstruction in the era of H2 blockers |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=90 |issue=10 |pages=1769–70 |year=1995 |pmid=7572891 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2207566">{{cite journal |vauthors=Johnson CD, Ellis H |title=Gastric outlet obstruction now predicts malignancy |journal=Br J Surg |volume=77 |issue=9 |pages=1023–4 |year=1990 |pmid=2207566 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** [[Pancreas]]: [[Pancreatic cancer]]
** [[Pancreas]]: [[Pancreatic cancer]]
*** Most common [[Cancer|malignancy]] leading to extrinsic [[obstruction]] of the [[pylorus]]
*** Most common [[Cancer|malignancy]] leading to extrinsic [[obstruction]] of the [[pylorus]]
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==Differentiating {{PAGENAME}} from Other Diseases==
==Differentiating {{PAGENAME}} from Other Diseases==
* '''The table below differentiates gastric outlet obstruction from other conditions:'''<ref name="pmid6710074">{{cite journal| author=Sugimachi K, Inokuchi K, Kuwano H, Ooiwa T| title=Acute gastritis clinically classified in accordance with data from both upper GI series and endoscopy. | journal=Scand J Gastroenterol | year= 1984 | volume= 19 | issue= 1 | pages= 31-7 | pmid=6710074 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6710074  }} </ref><ref name="pmid25901896">{{cite journal| author=Sipponen P, Maaroos HI| title=Chronic gastritis. | journal=Scand J Gastroenterol | year= 2015 | volume= 50 | issue= 6 | pages= 657-67 | pmid=25901896 | doi=10.3109/00365521.2015.1019918 | pmc=4673514 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25901896  }} </ref><ref name="pmid16819502">{{cite journal| author=Sartor RB| title=Mechanisms of disease: pathogenesis of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. | journal=Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol | year= 2006 | volume= 3 | issue= 7 | pages= 390-407 | pmid=16819502 | doi=10.1038/ncpgasthep0528 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16819502  }} </ref><ref name="pmid2789799">{{cite journal| author=Sipponen P| title=Atrophic gastritis as a premalignant condition. | journal=Ann Med | year= 1989 | volume= 21 | issue= 4 | pages= 287-90 | pmid=2789799 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2789799  }} </ref><ref name="pmid25133039">{{cite journal| author=Badillo R, Francis D| title=Diagnosis and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease. | journal=World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther | year= 2014 | volume= 5 | issue= 3 | pages= 105-12 | pmid=25133039 | doi=10.4292/wjgpt.v5.i3.105 | pmc=4133436 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25133039  }} </ref><ref name="pmid17956071">{{cite journal| author=Ramakrishnan K, Salinas RC| title=Peptic ulcer disease. | journal=Am Fam Physician | year= 2007 | volume= 76 | issue= 7 | pages= 1005-12 | pmid=17956071 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17956071  }} </ref><ref name="pmid17985090">{{cite journal| author=Banasch M, Schmitz F| title=Diagnosis and treatment of gastrinoma in the era of proton pump inhibitors. | journal=Wien Klin Wochenschr | year= 2007 | volume= 119 | issue= 19-20 | pages= 573-8 | pmid=17985090 | doi=10.1007/s00508-007-0884-2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17985090  }} </ref><ref name="pmid15621988">{{cite journal| author=Dicken BJ, Bigam DL, Cass C, Mackey JR, Joy AA, Hamilton SM| title=Gastric adenocarcinoma: review and considerations for future directions. | journal=Ann Surg | year= 2005 | volume= 241 | issue= 1 | pages= 27-39 | pmid=15621988 | doi= | pmc=1356843 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15621988  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21390139">{{cite journal| author=Ghimire P, Wu GY, Zhu L| title=Primary gastrointestinal lymphoma. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2011 | volume= 17 | issue= 6 | pages= 697-707 | pmid=21390139 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v17.i6.697 | pmc=3042647 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21390139  }} </ref>
Gastric outlet obstruction must be differentiated from other conditions that cause abdominal pain, heartburn, bloating, nausea and vomiting such as:<ref name="pmid6710074">{{cite journal| author=Sugimachi K, Inokuchi K, Kuwano H, Ooiwa T| title=Acute gastritis clinically classified in accordance with data from both upper GI series and endoscopy. | journal=Scand J Gastroenterol | year= 1984 | volume= 19 | issue= 1 | pages= 31-7 | pmid=6710074 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6710074  }} </ref><ref name="pmid25901896">{{cite journal| author=Sipponen P, Maaroos HI| title=Chronic gastritis. | journal=Scand J Gastroenterol | year= 2015 | volume= 50 | issue= 6 | pages= 657-67 | pmid=25901896 | doi=10.3109/00365521.2015.1019918 | pmc=4673514 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25901896  }} </ref><ref name="pmid16819502">{{cite journal| author=Sartor RB| title=Mechanisms of disease: pathogenesis of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. | journal=Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol | year= 2006 | volume= 3 | issue= 7 | pages= 390-407 | pmid=16819502 | doi=10.1038/ncpgasthep0528 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16819502  }} </ref><ref name="pmid2789799">{{cite journal| author=Sipponen P| title=Atrophic gastritis as a premalignant condition. | journal=Ann Med | year= 1989 | volume= 21 | issue= 4 | pages= 287-90 | pmid=2789799 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2789799  }} </ref><ref name="pmid25133039">{{cite journal| author=Badillo R, Francis D| title=Diagnosis and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease. | journal=World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther | year= 2014 | volume= 5 | issue= 3 | pages= 105-12 | pmid=25133039 | doi=10.4292/wjgpt.v5.i3.105 | pmc=4133436 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25133039  }} </ref><ref name="pmid17956071">{{cite journal| author=Ramakrishnan K, Salinas RC| title=Peptic ulcer disease. | journal=Am Fam Physician | year= 2007 | volume= 76 | issue= 7 | pages= 1005-12 | pmid=17956071 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17956071  }} </ref><ref name="pmid17985090">{{cite journal| author=Banasch M, Schmitz F| title=Diagnosis and treatment of gastrinoma in the era of proton pump inhibitors. | journal=Wien Klin Wochenschr | year= 2007 | volume= 119 | issue= 19-20 | pages= 573-8 | pmid=17985090 | doi=10.1007/s00508-007-0884-2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17985090  }} </ref><ref name="pmid15621988">{{cite journal| author=Dicken BJ, Bigam DL, Cass C, Mackey JR, Joy AA, Hamilton SM| title=Gastric adenocarcinoma: review and considerations for future directions. | journal=Ann Surg | year= 2005 | volume= 241 | issue= 1 | pages= 27-39 | pmid=15621988 | doi= | pmc=1356843 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15621988  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21390139">{{cite journal| author=Ghimire P, Wu GY, Zhu L| title=Primary gastrointestinal lymphoma. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2011 | volume= 17 | issue= 6 | pages= 697-707 | pmid=21390139 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v17.i6.697 | pmc=3042647 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21390139  }} </ref>
 
{| class="wikitable" style="border: 0px; font-size: 90%; margin: 3px;" align="center"
{| class="wikitable" style="border: 0px; font-size: 90%; margin: 3px;" align="center"
| colspan="13" style="background: #4479BA; text-align: center;" | {{fontcolor|#FFF|'''Differential Diagnosis'''}}
| colspan="12" style="background: #4479BA; text-align: center;" | {{fontcolor|#FFF|'''Differential Diagnosis'''}}
|+  
|+  
| rowspan="3" style="background:#4479BA; padding: 5px 5px;" align="center" |{{fontcolor|#FFF|'''Disease'''}}
| rowspan="3" style="background:#4479BA; padding: 5px 5px;" align="center" |{{fontcolor|#FFF|'''Disease'''}}
| rowspan="3" style="background:#4479BA; padding: 5px 5px;" align="center" |{{fontcolor|#FFF|'''Cause'''}}
| colspan="9" style="background:#4479BA; padding: 5px 5px;" align="center" |{{fontcolor|#FFF|'''Symptoms'''}}
| colspan="9" style="background:#4479BA; padding: 5px 5px;" align="center" |{{fontcolor|#FFF|'''Symptoms'''}}
| style="background:#4479BA; padding: 5px 5px;" align="center" |{{fontcolor|#FFF|'''Diagnosis'''}}
| style="background:#4479BA; padding: 5px 5px;" align="center" |{{fontcolor|#FFF|'''Diagnosis'''}}
Line 94: Line 57:
| rowspan="1" style="background:#4479BA; padding: 5px 5px;" align="center" |{{fontcolor|#FFF|'''Alleviating Factors'''}}
| rowspan="1" style="background:#4479BA; padding: 5px 5px;" align="center" |{{fontcolor|#FFF|'''Alleviating Factors'''}}
|-
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;"| Gastric outlet obstruction (GOO)
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" | Gastric outlet obstruction (GOO)
|
|
* [[Peptic ulcer|PUD]]: 5% cases (most commonly affecting [[pylorus]] and initial part of the [[duodenum]])
* [[Abdominal pain|Epigastric pain]]
* [[Polyps|Gastric polyps]]
* [[Caustic|Caustic ingestion]]
* [[Stenosis|Duodenal stricture]] 
* Systemic [[amyloidosis]] of the [[gastrointestinal tract]] 
* Eosinophillic [[gastroenteritis]] 
* [[Obstruction]] by [[Gallstone disease|gallstones]] (Bouveret syndrome)
* Complication of [[acute pancreatitis]]: [[pancreatic pseudocyst]] formation
 
* [[Chronic pancreatitis]]
 
* [[Bezoar|Bezoars]]
* [[Crohn's disease]] involving the [[duodenum]] 
* [[Stomach|Gastro]]-[[Duodenum|duodenal]] [[tuberculosis]]
* Pyloric stenosis
|[[Abdominal pain|Epigastric pain]]
|[[Food]]
|[[Food]]
| -
| -
Line 119: Line 67:
|✔
|✔
|✔
|✔
|[[Melena|Black stools]] in case of [[Peptic ulcer|Peptic Ulcer Disease(PUD)]]  
|[[Melena|Black stools]] in case of [[Peptic ulcer|peptic ulcer disease(PUD)]]  
|
|
* Helps in the determination of site of [[obstruction]]
* Determines the site of [[obstruction]]
* Helps in the visualization of the [[Stomach|gastric]] silhouette:
* Helps in the visualization of the [[Stomach|gastric]] silhouette
* Helps note the following:
* Differentiation of GOO from [[gastroparesis]] where gastric [[dilation]] is not associated with the narrowing of the [[pylorus]]
** [[Stomach|Gastric]] [[dilation]]
** Narrowing of the [[pylorus]]
** Presence of [[Ulcer|ulcers]]
** [[Tumor|Tumors]]
** Differentiation of GOO from [[gastroparesis]] where gastric [[dilation]] is not associated with the narrowing of the [[pylorus]]
|
|
==== Sodium chloride load test ====
==== Sodium chloride load test ====
* Procedure: [[Patient]] is infused with 750 mL of [[sodium chloride]] solution into the [[stomach]] via a [[Nasogastric tube|nasogastric tube (NGT)]].
* Presence of >400 mL NaCl solution in [[stomach]] after half an hour, is diagnostic of GOO.
* In case > 400 mL is left in the [[stomach]] after half an hour, the diagnosis of GOO may be made.


==== Needle-guided biopsy ====
==== Needle-guided biopsy ====
Line 138: Line 80:
|-
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Acute gastritis|'''Acute gastritis''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Acute gastritis|'''Acute gastritis''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* ''[[H. pylori]]''
* [[NSAIDS]]
* [[Corticosteroids]]
* [[Alcohol]]
* Spicy food
* [[Viral infections]]
* [[Crohn's disease]]
* [[Autoimmune diseases]]
* Bile reflux
* [[Cocaine]] use
* Breathing machine or ventilator
* Ingestion of [[corrosive|corrosives]]
|
|
* [[Epigastric pain]]
* [[Epigastric pain]]
Line 168: Line 97:
|-
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Gastritis|'''Chronic gastritis''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Gastritis|'''Chronic gastritis''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* ''[[H. pylori]]''
* [[Alcohol]]
* Medications
* [[Autoimmune diseases]]
* Chronic stress
|
|
* [[Epigastric pain]]
* [[Epigastric pain]]
Line 193: Line 116:
|-
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Atrophic gastritis|'''Atrophic gastritis''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Atrophic gastritis|'''Atrophic gastritis''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* ''[[H. pylori]]''
* [[Autoimmune disease]]
|
|
*[[Epigastric pain]]
*[[Epigastric pain]]
Line 210: Line 130:
[[Autoimmune]]
[[Autoimmune]]
* Mucosal [[atrophy]]
* Mucosal [[atrophy]]
|
|Diagnosed by:
* [[Iron deficiency anemia]]
*Antiparietal and anti-IF antibodies
*Autoimmune gastritis diagnosis includes:
*[[Achlorhydria]] and hypergastrinemia
**Antiparietal and anti-IF antibodies
*Low serum [[vitamin B12|cobalamine]]
**[[Achlorhydria]] and hypergastrinemia
**Low serum [[vitamin B12|cobalamine]]
|-
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Crohn's disease|'''Crohn's disease''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Crohn's disease|'''Crohn's disease''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* [[Autoimmune disease]]
|
|
* [[Abdominal pain]]
* [[Abdominal pain]]
Line 233: Line 149:
* [[Rectal bleeding]]
* [[Rectal bleeding]]
|
|
* Mucosal nodularity with cobblestoning
* Multiple [[aphthous ulcers]]
* Linier or serpiginous ulcerations
* Thickened antral folds
* Thickened antral folds
* Antral narrowing
* Antral narrowing
Line 246: Line 159:
|-
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[GERD|'''GERD''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[GERD|'''GERD''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* Lower esophageal sphincter abnormalities
* [[Hiatal hernia]]
* Abnormal esophageal contractions
* Prolonged emptying of [[stomach]]
* [[Gastrinoma|Gastrinomas]]
|
|
* [[Epigastric pain]]
* [[Epigastric pain]]
Line 277: Line 184:
* [[Cough|Nocturnal cough]]
* [[Cough|Nocturnal cough]]
* [[Hoarseness]]
* [[Hoarseness]]
Complications
* [[Esophagitis]]
* [[Strictures]]
* Barrette esophagus
|-
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Peptic ulcer disease|'''Peptic ulcer disease''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Peptic ulcer disease|'''Peptic ulcer disease''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* ''[[H. pylori]]''
* [[Smoking]]
* [[Alcohol]]
* [[Radiation therapy]]
* Medications
* [[Zollinger-Ellison syndrome]]
|
|
* [[Epigastric pain]] sometimes extending to back
* [[Epigastric pain]] sometimes extending to back
Line 311: Line 207:
* [[Melena|Black stools]]
* [[Melena|Black stools]]
|'''Gastric ulcers'''
|'''Gastric ulcers'''
* Discrete mucosal lesions with a punched-out smooth ulcer base with whitish fibrinoid base
* Most [[ulcers]] are at the junction of [[fundus]] and antrum
* Most [[ulcers]] are at the junction of [[fundus]] and antrum  
* 0.5-2.5cm
* 0.5-2.5cm
'''Duodenal ulcers'''
'''Duodenal ulcers'''
* Well-demarcated break in the [[mucosa]] that may extend into the [[muscularis propria]] of the [[duodenum]]
* Found in the first part of [[duodenum]]
* Found in the first part of [[duodenum]]
* <1cm
* <1cm
Line 324: Line 218:
|-
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Gastrinoma|'''Gastrinoma''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Gastrinoma|'''Gastrinoma''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* Associated with [[MEN type 1]]
|
|
* [[Abdominal pain]]
* [[Abdominal pain]]
Line 332: Line 224:
|✔
|✔


(suspect [[gastric outlet obstruction]])
(Suspect [[gastric outlet obstruction]])
|✔
|✔
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
Line 341: Line 233:
|Useful in collecting the tissue for [[biopsy]]
|Useful in collecting the tissue for [[biopsy]]
|
|
* May present with symptoms of [[GERD]] or [[peptic ulcer disease]]
* Associated with [[MEN type 1]]
'''Diagnostic tests'''
'''Diagnostic tests'''
* Serum [[gastrin]] levels
* Serum [[gastrin]] levels
Line 349: Line 239:
|-
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Gastric Cancer|'''Gastric Adenocarcinoma''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Gastric Cancer|'''Gastric Adenocarcinoma''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* ''[[H. pylori]]'' infection
* Smoked and salted food
|
|
* [[Abdominal pain]]
* [[Abdominal pain]]
Line 364: Line 251:
* [[Melena|Black stools]], or blood in stools
* [[Melena|Black stools]], or blood in stools
|'''Esophagogastroduodenoscopy'''
|'''Esophagogastroduodenoscopy'''
* Multiple biopsies are taken to establish the diagnosis
* Multiple biopsies are taken to establish the diagnosis and determine histological variant.
|'''Other symptoms'''
|'''Other symptoms'''
* [[Dysphagia]]
* [[Dysphagia]]
Line 371: Line 258:
|-
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Gastric lymphoma|'''Primary gastric lymphoma''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC;" |[[Gastric lymphoma|'''Primary gastric lymphoma''']]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* ''[[H. pylori]]'' infection
|
|
* [[Abdominal pain]]
* [[Abdominal pain]]
Line 388: Line 273:
* Painless swollen [[lymph nodes]] in neck and armpit
* Painless swollen [[lymph nodes]] in neck and armpit
* Night sweats
* Night sweats
* [[Fatigue]]
* [[Fever]]
* [[Cough]] or trouble breathing
|}
|}


==Epidemiology and Demographics==
==Epidemiology and Demographics==
* Incidence: less than 5% in patients with PUD.
The epidemiology of GOO is as follows:<ref name="pmid21626606">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lin KJ, García Rodríguez LA, Hernández-Díaz S |title=Systematic review of peptic ulcer disease incidence rates: do studies without validation provide reliable estimates? |journal=Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=718–28 |year=2011 |pmid=21626606 |doi=10.1002/pds.2153 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19220208">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sung JJ, Kuipers EJ, El-Serag HB |title=Systematic review: the global incidence and prevalence of peptic ulcer disease |journal=Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. |volume=29 |issue=9 |pages=938–46 |year=2009 |pmid=19220208 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.03960.x |url=}}</ref>
* PUD is the most common benign cause of GOO.
* The [[incidence]] of [[peptic ulcer]] disease (which is the most common benign cause of GOO) is approximately 10-19 per 100,000 individuals worldwide.
* In the US, five percent PUD cases require an average of 2000 surgeries annually.
* Five percent of all cases of [[Peptic ulcer|peptic ulcer disease]] worldwide, develop gastric outlet obstruction.
* Pancreatic cancer is the most common malignant cause of GOO.
* The [[incidence]] of gastric outlet obstruction is less than 5 per 100,000 [[Patient|patients]] worldwide.
* The incidence of GOO in cases with pancreatic cancer is approximately 20%.
* In the United States, [[Peptic ulcer|peptic ulcer disease]] requires an average of 2000 [[Surgery|surgeries]] annually.
 
* [[Pancreatic cancer]] is the most common malignant cause of GOO.
==Risk Factors==
* The [[incidence]] of GOO in cases with [[pancreatic cancer]] is approximately 20% of all cases.
 
==Screening==
 
==Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis==
===Natural History===
 
===Complications===
 
===Prognosis===


==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
===History and Symptoms===
===History ===
The following history is relevant in patients with GOO:<ref name="pmid3602991">{{cite journal |vauthors=Green ST, Drury JK, McCallion J, Erwin L |title=Carcinoid tumour presenting as recurrent gastric outlet obstruction: a case of long-term survival |journal=Scott Med J |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=54–5 |year=1987 |pmid=3602991 |doi=10.1177/003693308703200212 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8759707">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chowdhury A, Dhali GK, Banerjee PK |title=Etiology of gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=91 |issue=8 |pages=1679 |year=1996 |pmid=8759707 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
The following history is relevant in patients with GOO:<ref name="pmid3602991">{{cite journal |vauthors=Green ST, Drury JK, McCallion J, Erwin L |title=Carcinoid tumour presenting as recurrent gastric outlet obstruction: a case of long-term survival |journal=Scott Med J |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=54–5 |year=1987 |pmid=3602991 |doi=10.1177/003693308703200212 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8759707">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chowdhury A, Dhali GK, Banerjee PK |title=Etiology of gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=91 |issue=8 |pages=1679 |year=1996 |pmid=8759707 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* History of [[Peptic ulcer|Peptic Ulcer Disease]] ([[Peptic ulcer|PUD)]] or its complications
* History of [[Peptic ulcer|peptic ulcer disease]] or its complications
* [[Indigestion]]
* [[Anorexia]]
* [[Nausea and vomiting|Nausea]], [[Nausea and vomiting|vomiting]]
* [[Abdominal pain|Epigastric pain]]
* History of [[abdominal pain]] and [[weight loss]] in cases of [[pancreatic cancer]]
* History of [[abdominal pain]] and [[weight loss]] in cases of [[pancreatic cancer]]
Clinical presentation:


Early stages:<ref name="pmid7129059">{{cite journal |vauthors=Miner PB, Harri JE, McPhee MS |title=Intermittent gastric outlet obstruction from a pedunculated gastric polyp |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=219–20 |year=1982 |pmid=7129059 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7771437">{{cite journal |vauthors=Urayama S, Kozarek R, Ball T, Brandabur J, Traverso L, Ryan J, Wechter D |title=Presentation and treatment of annular pancreas in an adult population |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=90 |issue=6 |pages=995–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7771437 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
==== Symptoms ====
* [[Nausea and vomiting|Nausea]]
The clinical presentation of GOO is categorized into early and late stage symptoms. The early stage symptoms include nausea and vomiting (characteristic feature). [[Nausea and vomiting|Vomiting]] is intermittent, non [[Bile|bilious]], occurs after one hour after consuming meal and contains undigested particles of food leading to [[dehydration]].<ref name="pmid7129059">{{cite journal |vauthors=Miner PB, Harri JE, McPhee MS |title=Intermittent gastric outlet obstruction from a pedunculated gastric polyp |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=219–20 |year=1982 |pmid=7129059 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7771437">{{cite journal |vauthors=Urayama S, Kozarek R, Ball T, Brandabur J, Traverso L, Ryan J, Wechter D |title=Presentation and treatment of annular pancreas in an adult population |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=90 |issue=6 |pages=995–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7771437 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* [[Nausea and vomiting|Vomiting]]: characteristic feature
** Intermittent
** Occurs one hour after [[ingestion]]
** Non [[Bile|bilious]]
** Contains undigested particles of food
** Patient has intolerance to solids, followed by liquids
** [[Dehydration]]
** [[Electrolyte disturbance|Electrolyte abnormalities]]
Late stages:<ref name="pmid2207566">{{cite journal |vauthors=Johnson CD, Ellis H |title=Gastric outlet obstruction now predicts malignancy |journal=Br J Surg |volume=77 |issue=9 |pages=1023–4 |year=1990 |pmid=2207566 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7572891">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shone DN, Nikoomanesh P, Smith-Meek MM, Bender JS |title=Malignancy is the most common cause of gastric outlet obstruction in the era of H2 blockers |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=90 |issue=10 |pages=1769–70 |year=1995 |pmid=7572891 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16817848">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cappell MS, Davis M |title=Characterization of Bouveret's syndrome: a comprehensive review of 128 cases |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=101 |issue=9 |pages=2139–46 |year=2006 |pmid=16817848 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.00645.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid717362">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dubois A, Price SF, Castell DO |title=Gastric retention in peptic ulcer disease. A reappraisal |journal=Am J Dig Dis |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=993–7 |year=1978 |pmid=717362 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* [[Weight loss]]
* [[Malnutrition]]: more pronounced in patients with [[Cancer|malignancy]]
* [[Abdominal distension]]
* Features of incomplete [[obstruction]]
* [[Stomach|Gastric]] retention: presenting as early [[satiety]]
* [[Bloating]]
* Fullness of [[epigastrium]]
* [[Aspiration pneumonia]]: due to [[Dilation|dilatation]] of [[stomach]], loss of [[contractility]] and accumulation of undigested food contents


The late stage symptoms include abdominal fullness, [[malnutrition]], [[weight loss]], [[bloating]], and early satiety.<ref name="pmid7572891">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shone DN, Nikoomanesh P, Smith-Meek MM, Bender JS |title=Malignancy is the most common cause of gastric outlet obstruction in the era of H2 blockers |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=90 |issue=10 |pages=1769–70 |year=1995 |pmid=7572891 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16817848">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cappell MS, Davis M |title=Characterization of Bouveret's syndrome: a comprehensive review of 128 cases |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=101 |issue=9 |pages=2139–46 |year=2006 |pmid=16817848 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.00645.x |url=}}</ref>
===Physical Examination===
===Physical Examination===
In the late stages of GOO, patients may develop signs of [[malnutrition]] and incomplete [[obstruction]].
In the late stages of GOO, patients may develop signs of [[malnutrition]] and incomplete [[obstruction]]. Signs of malnutrition include weight loss and signs of [[dehydration]]. Signs of incomplete [[obstruction]] include findings such as [[abdominal mass]], visible [[Stomach|gastric]] [[peristalsis]], fullness of [[epigastrium]] and a tympanitic mass on percussion.
* Weight loss
{{#ev:youtube|UVJYQlUm2A8}}
* Signs of chronic [[dehydration]]
* [[Malnutrition]]: more pronounced in [[Patient|patients]] with [[Cancer|malignancy]]
* [[Abdominal distension]]
* Features of [[Obstruction|incomplete obstruction]]
* [[Aspiration pneumonia]]
* Abdominal examination:
** [[Abdominal mass]] may be present
** Location: [[Epigastrium]], Left upper quadrant of the [[abdomen]]
** [[Palpation]]: Fullness of [[epigastrium]]
** [[Percussion]]: Tympanitic mass


===Laboratory Findings===
===Laboratory Findings===
* Characteristic features due to [[Nausea and vomiting|vomiting]]:<ref name="pmid2760432">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hangen D, Maltz GS, Anderson JE, Knauer CM |title=Marked hypergastrinemia in gastric outlet obstruction |journal=J. Clin. Gastroenterol. |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=442–4 |year=1989 |pmid=2760432 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
Laboratory investigations suggestive of GOO include [[Hypokalemia|hypokalemic]] [[Hypochloremia|hypochloremic]] [[metabolic alkalosis]] (due to vomiting). In order to assess the severity and etiology of GOO, other investigations such as CBC, electrolyte panel, tests for H Pylori and [[liver function tests]] may be done.<ref name="pmid2760432">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hangen D, Maltz GS, Anderson JE, Knauer CM |title=Marked hypergastrinemia in gastric outlet obstruction |journal=J. Clin. Gastroenterol. |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=442–4 |year=1989 |pmid=2760432 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** [[Hypokalemia|Hypokalemic]] [[Hypochloremia|hypochloremic]] [[metabolic alkalosis]]
* [[Complete blood count|Complete Blood Count]] ([[Complete blood count|CBC]]): may show [[anemia]]
* Electrolyte panel
* [[Liver function tests]]: in case of [[Cancer|malignancy]]
* Test for [[Helicobacter pylori|H pylori]] for diagnosis of [[Peptic ulcer|PUD]]
 
===Imaging Findings===
===Imaging Findings===
Imaging studies such as [[Radiography|plain radiographs]], [[Radiocontrast|contrast]] [[Upper gastrointestinal series|upper gastrointestinal (GI) studies]] and [[Computed Tomography|Computed Tomography (CT)]] with [[Radiocontrast|oral contrast]] may be used for evaluating patients with [[Symptom|symptoms]] of GOO.  
Imaging studies such as [[Radiography|plain radiographs]], [[Radiocontrast|contrast]] [[Upper gastrointestinal series|upper gastrointestinal (GI) studies]] and [[Computed Tomography|computed tomography (CT)]] with [[Radiocontrast|oral contrast]] may be used for evaluating patients with [[Symptom|symptoms]] of GOO.  


'''Plain radiographs'''
'''X ray'''
* Obstruction series includes:
** [[Abdominal X-ray|Supine abdomen X Ray]]
** [[Abdominal X-ray|Upright abdomen X Ray]]
** [[Chest X-ray|Chest (posteroanterior) X Ray]]
* This helps in the determination of the presence of [[Stomach|gastric]] [[Dilation|dilatation]].
 
==== Contrast upper gastrointestinal (GI) studies (Gastrografin or barium) ====
* [[Upper gastrointestinal series|Barium upper GI studies]]:
** Helps in the determination of site of [[obstruction]]
** Helps in the visualization of the [[Stomach|gastric]] silhouette:
** Helps note the following:
*** [[Stomach|Gastric]] [[dilation]]
*** Narrowing of the [[pylorus]]
*** Presence of [[Ulcer|ulcers]]
*** [[Tumor|Tumors]]
*** Differentiation of GOO from [[gastroparesis]] where gastric [[dilation]] is not associated with the narrowing of the [[pylorus]]


An X-ray (obstruction series or barium study) may be helpful in the diagnosis of GOO. Findings on an x-ray suggestive of GOO include [[Stomach|gastric]] [[Dilation|dilatation]]. Findings on barium or Gastrografin study help in the determination of site of [[obstruction]], visualization of the [[Stomach|gastric]] silhouette, [[Stomach|gastric]] [[dilation]], narrowed [[pylorus]], presence of [[Ulcer|ulcers]] and tumors. GOO may also be differentiated from [[gastroparesis]] in which gastric [[dilation]] is not associated with the narrowing of the [[pylorus]].
* [[Nuclear medicine|Nuclear gastric emptying study]]:<ref name="pmid1199997">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chaudhuri TK, Greenwald AJ, Heading RC |title=Measurement of gastric emptying time--a comparative study between nonisotopic aspiration method and new radioisotopic technique |journal=Am J Dig Dis |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=1063–6 |year=1975 |pmid=1199997 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* [[Nuclear medicine|Nuclear gastric emptying study]]:<ref name="pmid1199997">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chaudhuri TK, Greenwald AJ, Heading RC |title=Measurement of gastric emptying time--a comparative study between nonisotopic aspiration method and new radioisotopic technique |journal=Am J Dig Dis |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=1063–6 |year=1975 |pmid=1199997 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** [[Radionuclide]] is given orally and its passage is measured over a certain duration.
** [[Radionuclide]] is given orally and its passage is measured over a certain duration.


==== Computed tomography (CT) with oral contrast ====
==== Computed tomography (CT) with oral contrast ====
* CT with [[Radiocontrast|oral contrast]] may also be of use in suspected cases with equivocal findings on [[X-rays|X Ray]] and [[Upper gastrointestinal series|Barium Upper GI studies]]. CT-guided [[biopsy]] may be especially useful in cases of [[pancreatic cancer]].
CT with [[Radiocontrast|oral contrast]] or CT-guided [[biopsy]] may be done in suspected cases with equivocal findings on [[X-rays|X Ray]] and [[Upper gastrointestinal series|Barium Upper GI studies]]. Findings of CT are variable and include those of the underlying condition.


===Other Diagnostic Studies===
===Other Diagnostic Studies===


==== Endoscopy ====
==== Endoscopy ====
* [[Esophagogastroduodenoscopy|Upper endoscopy]] may help with:<ref name="pmid8635729">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lau JY, Chung SC, Sung JJ, Chan AC, Ng EK, Suen RC, Li AK |title=Through-the-scope balloon dilation for pyloric stenosis: long-term results |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=43 |issue=2 Pt 1 |pages=98–101 |year=1996 |pmid=8635729 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9831838">{{cite journal |vauthors=Awan A, Johnston DE, Jamal MM |title=Gastric outlet obstruction with benign endoscopic biopsy should be further explored for malignancy |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=497–500 |year=1998 |pmid=9831838 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
[[Esophagogastroduodenoscopy|Upper endoscopy]] may be helpful in the diagnosis of GOO. An upper endoscopy aids in visualization of the [[Stomach|gastric]] outlet, [[biopsy]] sampling in case of [[Lumen (anatomy)|intraluminal]] [[pathology]]. In addition, endoscopic [[biopsy]] helps rule out the presence of [[Cancer|malignancy]] in [[Patient|patients]] with symptoms of [[Peptic ulcer|peptic ulcer disease (PUD)]]:<ref name="pmid8635729">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lau JY, Chung SC, Sung JJ, Chan AC, Ng EK, Suen RC, Li AK |title=Through-the-scope balloon dilation for pyloric stenosis: long-term results |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=43 |issue=2 Pt 1 |pages=98–101 |year=1996 |pmid=8635729 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9831838">{{cite journal |vauthors=Awan A, Johnston DE, Jamal MM |title=Gastric outlet obstruction with benign endoscopic biopsy should be further explored for malignancy |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=497–500 |year=1998 |pmid=9831838 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** Visualization of the [[Stomach|gastric]] outlet
** [[Biopsy]] sampling in case of [[Lumen (anatomy)|intraluminal]] [[pathology]]
** Endoscopic [[biopsy]] helps rule out the presence of [[Cancer|malignancy]] in [[Patient|patients]] with symptoms of [[Peptic ulcer|Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD)]]


==== Sodium chloride load test ====
==== Sodium chloride load test ====
* Procedure: [[Patient]] is infused with 750 mL of [[sodium chloride]] solution into the [[stomach]] via a [[Nasogastric tube|nasogastric tube (NGT)]].<ref name="pmid5831782">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goldstein H, Boyle JD |title=The saline load test--a bedside evaluation of gastric retention |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=375–80 |year=1965 |pmid=5831782 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
In sodium chloride test, the patient is infused with 750 mililiters of [[sodium chloride]] solution into the [[stomach]] via a [[Nasogastric tube|nasogastric tube (NGT)]]. After half an hour if > 400 mL is left in the [[stomach]], the diagnosis of GOO is made.<ref name="pmid5831782">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goldstein H, Boyle JD |title=The saline load test--a bedside evaluation of gastric retention |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=375–80 |year=1965 |pmid=5831782 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* In case > 400 mL is left in the [[stomach]] after half an hour, the diagnosis of GOO may be made.<ref name="pmid5831782">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goldstein H, Boyle JD |title=The saline load test--a bedside evaluation of gastric retention |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=375–80 |year=1965 |pmid=5831782 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


==== Needle-guided biopsy ====
==== Needle-guided biopsy ====
* Helps in the evaluation of [[Patient|patients]] for [[metastasis]]
Needle guided biopsy is used to evaluate [[Patient|patients]] for [[metastasis]], in order to detect the primary tumor on histology.


==Treatment==
==Treatment==
===Medical Therapy===
===Medical Therapy===
* Medical therapy may be given to all [[Patient|patients]] prior to [[surgery]] in cases of Gastric Outlet Obstruction. This includes the following:<ref name="pmid10436838">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gouma DJ, van Geenen R, van Gulik T, de Wit LT, Obertop H |title=Surgical palliative treatment in bilio-pancreatic malignancy |journal=Ann. Oncol. |volume=10 Suppl 4 |issue= |pages=269–72 |year=1999 |pmid=10436838 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7678945">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lillemoe KD, Sauter PK, Pitt HA, Yeo CJ, Cameron JL |title=Current status of surgical palliation of periampullary carcinoma |journal=Surg Gynecol Obstet |volume=176 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |year=1993 |pmid=7678945 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* Medical therapy may be given to all [[Patient|patients]] prior to [[surgery]] in cases of gastric outlet obstruction. Medical therapy primarily involves supportive care in preparation of surgery with hydration, NG tube decompression, correction of [[Electrolyte disturbance|electrolyte imbalances]]. <ref name="pmid10436838">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gouma DJ, van Geenen R, van Gulik T, de Wit LT, Obertop H |title=Surgical palliative treatment in bilio-pancreatic malignancy |journal=Ann. Oncol. |volume=10 Suppl 4 |issue= |pages=269–72 |year=1999 |pmid=10436838 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** [[Hydration reaction|Hydration]]
* [[Endoscopy|Endoscopic]] [[stent]] placement for advanced GI cancer causing GOO.<ref name="pmid15605026">{{cite journal |vauthors=Holt AP, Patel M, Ahmed MM |title=Palliation of patients with malignant gastroduodenal obstruction with self-expanding metallic stents: the treatment of choice? |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=1010–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15605026 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** [[Stomach|Gastric]] [[decompression]]
** [[Sodium chloride]] to correct low [[chloride]] levels
** Replacement of [[potassium]]
** Replacement of [[volume]] status
** Placement of a [[Nasogastric tube|nasogastric tube (NG tube)]] for [[stomach]] [[decompression]]
** Jejunostomy tube may be placed during [[surgery]]
** Treatment of [[Electrolyte disturbance|electrolyte imbalances]]
** [[Palliative care|Palliative therapy]] for cases of advanced [[cancer]]: [[Endoscopy|Endoscopic]] [[stent]] placement<ref name="pmid15605026">{{cite journal |vauthors=Holt AP, Patel M, Ahmed MM |title=Palliation of patients with malignant gastroduodenal obstruction with self-expanding metallic stents: the treatment of choice? |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=1010–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15605026 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16530111">{{cite journal |vauthors=Adler DG, Merwat SN |title=Endoscopic approaches for palliation of luminal gastrointestinal obstruction |journal=Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=65–82, viii |year=2006 |pmid=16530111 |doi=10.1016/j.gtc.2005.12.004 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15481009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baron TH |title=Surgical versus endoscopic palliation of malignant gastric outlet obstruction: big incision, little incision, or no incision? |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=127 |issue=4 |pages=1268–9 |year=2004 |pmid=15481009 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15605006">{{cite journal |vauthors=Telford JJ, Carr-Locke DL, Baron TH, Tringali A, Parsons WG, Gabbrielli A, Costamagna G |title=Palliation of patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction with the enteral Wallstent: outcomes from a multicenter study |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=916–20 |year=2004 |pmid=15605006 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17324410">{{cite journal |vauthors=Song GA, Kang DH, Kim TO, Heo J, Kim GH, Cho M, Heo JH, Kim JY, Lee JS, Jeoung YJ, Jeon TY, Kim DH, Sim MS |title=Endoscopic stenting in patients with recurrent malignant obstruction after gastric surgery: uncovered versus simultaneously deployed uncovered and covered (double) self-expandable metal stents |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=782–7 |year=2007 |pmid=17324410 |doi=10.1016/j.gie.2006.08.030 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23621572">{{cite journal |vauthors=Maetani I, Mizumoto Y, Shigoka H, Omuta S, Saito M, Tokuhisa J, Morizane T |title=Placement of a triple-layered covered versus uncovered metallic stent for palliation of malignant gastric outlet obstruction: a multicenter randomized trial |journal=Dig Endosc |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=192–9 |year=2014 |pmid=23621572 |doi=10.1111/den.12117 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11231392">{{cite journal |vauthors=Yim HB, Jacobson BC, Saltzman JR, Johannes RS, Bounds BC, Lee JH, Shields SJ, Ruymann FW, Van Dam J, Carr-Locke DL |title=Clinical outcome of the use of enteral stents for palliation of patients with malignant upper GI obstruction |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=329–32 |year=2001 |pmid=11231392 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21656455">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Hooft JE, van Montfoort ML, Jeurnink SM, Bruno MJ, Dijkgraaf MG, Siersema PD, Fockens P |title=Safety and efficacy of a new non-foreshortening nitinol stent in malignant gastric outlet obstruction (DUONITI study): a prospective, multicenter study |journal=Endoscopy |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=671–5 |year=2011 |pmid=21656455 |doi=10.1055/s-0030-1256383 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19551436">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ly J, O'Grady G, Mittal A, Plank L, Windsor JA |title=A systematic review of methods to palliate malignant gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Surg Endosc |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=290–7 |year=2010 |pmid=19551436 |doi=10.1007/s00464-009-0577-1 |url=}}</ref>


* In patients with benign Gastric Outlet Obstruction due to [[Peptic ulcer|Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD)]], medical therapy is given in [[Patient|patients]] to treat acute [[inflammation]] and [[edema]].<ref name="pmid7572891" /><ref name="pmid10672050">{{cite journal |vauthors=Taskin V, Gurer I, Ozyilkan E, Sare M, Hilmioglu F |title=Effect of Helicobacter pylori eradication on peptic ulcer disease complicated with outlet obstruction |journal=Helicobacter |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=38–40 |year=2000 |pmid=10672050 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8583113">{{cite journal |vauthors=de Boer WA, Driessen WM |title=Resolution of gastric outlet obstruction after eradication of Helicobacter pylori |journal=J. Clin. Gastroenterol. |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=329–30 |year=1995 |pmid=8583113 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8877648">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tursi A, Cammarota G, Papa A, Montalto M, Fedeli G, Gasbarrini G |title=Helicobacter pylori eradication helps resolve pyloric and duodenal stenosis |journal=J. Clin. Gastroenterol. |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=157–8 |year=1996 |pmid=8877648 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12144568">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gisbert JP, Pajares JM |title=Review article: Helicobacter pylori infection and gastric outlet obstruction - prevalence of the infection and role of antimicrobial treatment |journal=Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=1203–8 |year=2002 |pmid=12144568 |doi= |url=}}</ref> 
* In patients with benign Gastric Outlet Obstruction due to [[Peptic ulcer|peptic ulcer disease]], medical therapy with proton pump inhibitors or histamine-2 (H2) blockers is given in [[Patient|patients]] to treat acute [[inflammation]] and [[edema]].<ref name="pmid7572891" />
** Histamine-2 (H2) blockers
** [[Proton pump inhibitor|Proton pump inhibitors]]


* For the treatment of [[Stenosis|strictures]] in patients with GOO due to advanced stage [[cancer]], [[Endoscopy|endoscopic]] [[Pneumatic tube|pneumatic]] balloon [[Dilation|dilatation]] and use of [[Stent|self-expandable metallic stents]] are preferred techniques.<ref name="pmid8409292">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kozarek RA |title=Dilation therapy for gastric outlet obstruction. Are balloons a bust? |journal=J. Clin. Gastroenterol. |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=2–4 |year=1993 |pmid=8409292 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17640640">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cherian PT, Cherian S, Singh P |title=Long-term follow-up of patients with gastric outlet obstruction related to peptic ulcer disease treated with endoscopic balloon dilatation and drug therapy |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=491–7 |year=2007 |pmid=17640640 |doi=10.1016/j.gie.2006.11.016 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7173580">{{cite journal |vauthors=Benjamin SB, Cattau EL, Glass RL |title=Balloon dilation of the pylorus: therapy for gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=253–4 |year=1982 |pmid=7173580 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8198096">{{cite journal |vauthors=DiSario JA, Fennerty MB, Tietze CC, Hutson WR, Burt RW |title=Endoscopic balloon dilation for ulcer-induced gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=89 |issue=6 |pages=868–71 |year=1994 |pmid=8198096 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10505729">{{cite journal |vauthors=Boylan JJ, Gradzka MI |title=Long-term results of endoscopic balloon dilatation for gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Dig. Dis. Sci. |volume=44 |issue=9 |pages=1883–6 |year=1999 |pmid=10505729 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12783346">{{cite journal |vauthors=Solt J, Bajor J, Szabó M, Horváth OP |title=Long-term results of balloon catheter dilation for benign gastric outlet stenosis |journal=Endoscopy |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=490–5 |year=2003 |pmid=12783346 |doi=10.1055/s-2003-39664 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15012779">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kochhar R, Sethy PK, Nagi B, Wig JD |title=Endoscopic balloon dilatation of benign gastric outlet obstruction |journal=J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=418–22 |year=2004 |pmid=15012779 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8545292">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kelly SM, Hunter JO |title=Endoscopic balloon dilatation of duodenal strictures in Crohn's disease |journal=Postgrad Med J |volume=71 |issue=840 |pages=623–4 |year=1995 |pmid=8545292 |pmc=2398267 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* For the treatment of [[Stenosis|strictures]] in patients with GOO due to advanced stage [[cancer]], [[Endoscopy|endoscopic]] [[Pneumatic tube|pneumatic]] balloon [[Dilation|dilatation]] and use of [[Stent|self-expandable metallic stents]] are preferred techniques.<ref name="pmid8409292">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kozarek RA |title=Dilation therapy for gastric outlet obstruction. Are balloons a bust? |journal=J. Clin. Gastroenterol. |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=2–4 |year=1993 |pmid=8409292 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  
* [[Stents|Metallic stents]] may be associated with complications such as : 
** [[Perforation]]
** [[Bleeding]]
** Malposition
** Migration
** [[Tumor]] overgrowth or ingrowth


===Surgery===
===Surgery===
Surgery is the primary modality of treatment for [[Patient|patients]] with GOO. It is required for more than 75 percent of patients, with [[Scar|scarring]], [[fibrosis]] and [[Tumor|tumors]]. The aims of surgery in case of GOO include:
Surgery is the primary modality of treatment for [[Patient|patients]] with GOO. It is required for more than 75 percent of patients, with [[Scar|scarring]], [[fibrosis]] and [[Tumor|tumors]]. The aims of surgery in case of GOO include relief of [[obstruction]], [[Patient|patients]] with failure to respond to medical therapy or failure to improve even after 72 hours of therapy, and correction of [[Peptic ulcer|PUD]] symptoms.
* Relief of [[obstruction]]
* Relief in [[Patient|patients]] with failure to respond to medical therapy or failure to improve even after 72 hours of therapy
* Correction of [[Peptic ulcer|PUD]] symptoms
 
==== Preoperative evaluation ====
* Correct fluid and [[Electrolyte disturbance|electrolyte abnormalities]]
* [[Nutritional|Nutritional evaluation]]: [[Total parenteral nutrition|TPN]]
* [[Nasogastric intubation|Gastric decompression]] using [[Nasogastric intubation|NG tube]]
 
* [[Feeding tube|Enteral feedings]] via [[percutaneous]] [[Anastomosis|jejunostomy]]
 
==== Guidelines for surgery ====
==== Guidelines for surgery ====
* [[Patient]] should be able to tolerate [[surgery]]
Surgery should be considered only in patients who are able to tolerate the surgical procedure. Major [[Resection|resections]] of the [[tumor]] must be done in the absence of [[Metastasis|metastatic disease]]. In the case of [[Metastasis|metastatic disease]], extent of [[surgery]] needs to be determined.
* Major [[Resection|resections]] of the [[tumor]] must be done in the absence of [[Metastasis|metastatic disease]]
* In case of [[Metastasis|metastatic disease]], extent of [[surgery]] needs to be determined
 
==== Types of surgical procedures  ====
==== Types of surgical procedures  ====
The types of surgical procedures performed in cases of GOO are as follows:<ref name="pmid2919581" /><ref name="pmid12384765">{{cite journal |vauthors=Alam TA, Baines M, Parker MC |title=The management of gastric outlet obstruction secondary to inoperable cancer |journal=Surg Endosc |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=320–3 |year=2003 |pmid=12384765 |doi=10.1007/s00464-001-9197-0 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17640581">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chopita N, Landoni N, Ross A, Villaverde A |title=Malignant gastroenteric obstruction: therapeutic options |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. Clin. N. Am. |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=533–44, vi–vii |year=2007 |pmid=17640581 |doi=10.1016/j.giec.2007.05.007 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11967685">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wong YT, Brams DM, Munson L, Sanders L, Heiss F, Chase M, Birkett DH |title=Gastric outlet obstruction secondary to pancreatic cancer: surgical vs endoscopic palliation |journal=Surg Endosc |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=310–2 |year=2002 |pmid=11967685 |doi=10.1007/s00464-001-9061-2 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21366507">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rudolph HU, Post S, Schlüter M, Seitz U, Soehendra N, Kähler G |title=Malignant gastroduodenal obstruction: retrospective comparison of endoscopic and surgical palliative therapy |journal=Scand. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=583–90 |year=2011 |pmid=21366507 |doi=10.3109/00365521.2010.545831 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8912074">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hwang TL, Chen MF |title=Surgical treatment of gastric outlet obstruction after corrosive injury--can early definitive operation be used instead of staged operation? |journal=Int Surg |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=119–21 |year=1996 |pmid=8912074 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11431765">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tekant G, Eroğlu E, Erdoğan E, Yeşildağ E, Emir H, Büyükünal C, Yeker D |title=Corrosive injury-induced gastric outlet obstruction: a changing spectrum of agents and treatment |journal=J. Pediatr. Surg. |volume=36 |issue=7 |pages=1004–7 |year=2001 |pmid=11431765 |doi=10.1053/jpsu.2001.24725 |url=}}</ref>
The types of surgical procedures performed in cases of GOO are as follows:<ref name="pmid12384765">{{cite journal |vauthors=Alam TA, Baines M, Parker MC |title=The management of gastric outlet obstruction secondary to inoperable cancer |journal=Surg Endosc |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=320–3 |year=2003 |pmid=12384765 |doi=10.1007/s00464-001-9197-0 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17640581">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chopita N, Landoni N, Ross A, Villaverde A |title=Malignant gastroenteric obstruction: therapeutic options |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. Clin. N. Am. |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=533–44, vi–vii |year=2007 |pmid=17640581 |doi=10.1016/j.giec.2007.05.007 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11967685">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wong YT, Brams DM, Munson L, Sanders L, Heiss F, Chase M, Birkett DH |title=Gastric outlet obstruction secondary to pancreatic cancer: surgical vs endoscopic palliation |journal=Surg Endosc |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=310–2 |year=2002 |pmid=11967685 |doi=10.1007/s00464-001-9061-2 |url=}}</ref>
* [[Vagotomy]] and [[antrectomy]]
* Vagotomy and [[antrectomy]], gastrojejunostomy ([[vagotomy]] and [[antrectomy]] with Billroth II reconstruction), balloon [[Dilation|dilatation]], pylorotomy, [[pyloroplasty]], robotic-assisted [[pyloroplasty]], [[vagotomy]] and [[pyloroplasty]], truncal [[vagotomy]] and [[gastrojejunostomy]] and [[Laparoscopic surgery|laparoscopic]] surgery ([[Laparoscopic|laparoscopic truncal vagotomy]], [[Laparoscopic surgery|laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy]], [[Laparoscopic surgery|laparoscopic pyloromyotomy]], [[Laparoscopic surgery|laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy]]). The advantages of [[Laparoscopic surgery|laparoscopy]] include fast [[Gastrointestinal tract|GI]] transit recovery time, fewer [[Blood transfusion|blood transfusions]], low [[Mortality rate|mortality]] and brief hospital stay.
* [[Gastrojejunostomy]] ([[vagotomy]] and [[antrectomy]] with Billroth II reconstruction) is the [[surgery]] of choice for GOO secondary to [[Cancer|malignancy]].<ref name="pmid10493479">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lillemoe KD, Cameron JL, Hardacre JM, Sohn TA, Sauter PK, Coleman J, Pitt HA, Yeo CJ |title=Is prophylactic gastrojejunostomy indicated for unresectable periampullary cancer? A prospective randomized trial |journal=Ann. Surg. |volume=230 |issue=3 |pages=322–8; discussion 328–30 |year=1999 |pmid=10493479 |pmc=1420877 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23299137">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khashab M, Alawad AS, Shin EJ, Kim K, Bourdel N, Singh VK, Lennon AM, Hutfless S, Sharaiha RZ, Amateau S, Okolo PI, Makary MA, Wolfgang C, Canto MI, Kalloo AN |title=Enteral stenting versus gastrojejunostomy for palliation of malignant gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Surg Endosc |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=2068–75 |year=2013 |pmid=23299137 |doi=10.1007/s00464-012-2712-7 |url=}}</ref>
* [[Endoscopy|Endoscopic surgery (Endoscopic gastroenteric anastomosis)]] is preferred in cases of [[malignant]] [[obstruction]]. The advantages include high success rate, brief hospital stay and low [[Mortality rate|mortality]].<ref name="pmid16046997">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kantsevoy SV, Jagannath SB, Niiyama H, Chung SS, Cotton PB, Gostout CJ, Hawes RH, Pasricha PJ, Magee CA, Vaughn CA, Barlow D, Shimonaka H, Kalloo AN |title=Endoscopic gastrojejunostomy with survival in a porcine model |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=287–92 |year=2005 |pmid=16046997 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15824939">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chopita N, Vaillaverde A, Cope C, Bernedo A, Martinez H, Landoni N, Jmelnitzky A, Burgos H |title=Endoscopic gastroenteric anastomosis using magnets |journal=Endoscopy |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=313–7 |year=2005 |pmid=15824939 |doi=10.1055/s-2005-861358 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23522025">{{cite journal |vauthors=No JH, Kim SW, Lim CH, Kim JS, Cho YK, Park JM, Lee IS, Choi MG, Choi KY |title=Long-term outcome of palliative therapy for gastric outlet obstruction caused by unresectable gastric cancer in patients with good performance status: endoscopic stenting versus surgery |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=55–62 |year=2013 |pmid=23522025 |doi=10.1016/j.gie.2013.01.041 |url=}}</ref>  
* Balloon [[Dilation|dilatation]]<ref name="pmid10493479">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lillemoe KD, Cameron JL, Hardacre JM, Sohn TA, Sauter PK, Coleman J, Pitt HA, Yeo CJ |title=Is prophylactic gastrojejunostomy indicated for unresectable periampullary cancer? A prospective randomized trial |journal=Ann. Surg. |volume=230 |issue=3 |pages=322–8; discussion 328–30 |year=1999 |pmid=10493479 |pmc=1420877 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15278050">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lam YH, Lau JY, Fung TM, Ng EK, Wong SK, Sung JJ, Chung SS |title=Endoscopic balloon dilation for benign gastric outlet obstruction with or without Helicobacter pylori infection |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=229–33 |year=2004 |pmid=15278050 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2439057">{{cite journal |vauthors=Doberneck RC, Berndt GA |title=Delayed gastric emptying after palliative gastrojejunostomy for carcinoma of the pancreas |journal=Arch Surg |volume=122 |issue=7 |pages=827–9 |year=1987 |pmid=2439057 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16490561">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arciero CA, Joseph N, Watson JC, Hoffman JP |title=Partial stomach-partitioning gastrojejunostomy for malignant duodenal obstruction |journal=Am. J. Surg. |volume=191 |issue=3 |pages=428–32 |year=2006 |pmid=16490561 |doi=10.1016/j.amjsurg.2005.10.053 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9566559">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bergamaschi R, Mårvik R, Thoresen JE, Ystgaard B, Johnsen G, Myrvold HE |title=Open versus laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy for palliation in advanced pancreatic cancer |journal=Surg Laparosc Endosc |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=92–6 |year=1998 |pmid=9566559 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** Side effects:
*** High [[incidence]] of [[gastroparesis]]
*** High rate of recurrence
* Pylorotomy<ref name="pmid19579758">{{cite journal |vauthors=Huang YL, Lee HC, Yeung CY, Chen WT, Jiang CB, Sheu JC, Wang NL |title=Sonogram before and after pyloromyotomy: the pyloric ratio in infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis |journal=Pediatr Neonatol |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=117–20 |year=2009 |pmid=19579758 |doi=10.1016/S1875-9572(09)60046-2 |url=}}</ref>
* [[Pyloroplasty]]
* Robotic-assisted [[pyloroplasty]]
** Side effect:
*** [[Stomach|Gastric]] outlet scarring
 
* [[Vagotomy]] and [[pyloroplasty]]
* Truncal [[vagotomy]] and [[gastrojejunostomy]]<ref name="pmid15630940">{{cite journal |vauthors=Siu WT, Tang CN, Law BK, Chau CH, Yau KK, Yang GP, Li MK |title=Vagotomy and gastrojejunostomy for benign gastric outlet obstruction |journal=J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=266–9 |year=2004 |pmid=15630940 |doi=10.1089/lap.2004.14.266 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20003966">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jeurnink SM, Steyerberg EW, van Hooft JE, van Eijck CH, Schwartz MP, Vleggaar FP, Kuipers EJ, Siersema PD |title=Surgical gastrojejunostomy or endoscopic stent placement for the palliation of malignant gastric outlet obstruction (SUSTENT study): a multicenter randomized trial |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=490–9 |year=2010 |pmid=20003966 |doi=10.1016/j.gie.2009.09.042 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20033227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jeurnink SM, Polinder S, Steyerberg EW, Kuipers EJ, Siersema PD |title=Cost comparison of gastrojejunostomy versus duodenal stent placement for malignant gastric outlet obstruction |journal=J. Gastroenterol. |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=537–43 |year=2010 |pmid=20033227 |doi=10.1007/s00535-009-0181-0 |url=}}</ref>
* [[Laparoscopic|Laparoscopic truncal vagotomy]]<ref name="pmid19196094">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abdel-Salam WN, Katri KM, Bessa SS, El-Kayal el-SA |title=Laparoscopic-assisted truncal vagotomy and gastro-jejunostomy: trial of simplification |journal=J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–7 |year=2009 |pmid=19196094 |doi=10.1089/lap.2008.0250 |url=}}</ref>
* [[Laparoscopic surgery|Laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy]]<ref name="pmid18813980">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kim SM, Song J, Oh SJ, Hyung WJ, Choi SH, Noh SH |title=Comparison of laparoscopic truncal vagotomy with gastrojejunostomy and open surgery in peptic pyloric stenosis |journal=Surg Endosc |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=1326–30 |year=2009 |pmid=18813980 |doi=10.1007/s00464-008-0160-1 |url=}}</ref>
* [[Laparoscopic surgery|Laparoscopic pyloromyotomy]]<ref name="pmid19155060">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hall NJ, Pacilli M, Eaton S, Reblock K, Gaines BA, Pastor A, Langer JC, Koivusalo AI, Pakarinen MP, Stroedter L, Beyerlein S, Haddad M, Clarke S, Ford H, Pierro A |title=Recovery after open versus laparoscopic pyloromyotomy for pyloric stenosis: a double-blind multicentre randomised controlled trial |journal=Lancet |volume=373 |issue=9661 |pages=390–8 |year=2009 |pmid=19155060 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60006-4 |url=}}</ref>
* [[Laparoscopic surgery|Laparoscopic gastrojejunostomy]]: The advantages of this [[Surgery|procedure]] are as follows:
** Fast [[Gastrointestinal tract|GI]] transit recovery time
** Fewer [[Blood transfusion|blood transfusions]]
** Low [[Mortality rate|mortality]]
** Brief hospital stay
* [[Endoscopy|Endoscopic surgery (Endoscopic gastroenteric anastomosis)]] is preferred in cases of [[malignant]] [[obstruction]]. The advantages of this [[Surgery|procedure]] include:<ref name="pmid16046997">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kantsevoy SV, Jagannath SB, Niiyama H, Chung SS, Cotton PB, Gostout CJ, Hawes RH, Pasricha PJ, Magee CA, Vaughn CA, Barlow D, Shimonaka H, Kalloo AN |title=Endoscopic gastrojejunostomy with survival in a porcine model |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=287–92 |year=2005 |pmid=16046997 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15824939">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chopita N, Vaillaverde A, Cope C, Bernedo A, Martinez H, Landoni N, Jmelnitzky A, Burgos H |title=Endoscopic gastroenteric anastomosis using magnets |journal=Endoscopy |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=313–7 |year=2005 |pmid=15824939 |doi=10.1055/s-2005-861358 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23522025">{{cite journal |vauthors=No JH, Kim SW, Lim CH, Kim JS, Cho YK, Park JM, Lee IS, Choi MG, Choi KY |title=Long-term outcome of palliative therapy for gastric outlet obstruction caused by unresectable gastric cancer in patients with good performance status: endoscopic stenting versus surgery |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=55–62 |year=2013 |pmid=23522025 |doi=10.1016/j.gie.2013.01.041 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid15758914">{{cite journal |vauthors=Del Piano M, Ballarè M, Montino F, Todesco A, Orsello M, Magnani C, Garello E |title=Endoscopy or surgery for malignant GI outlet obstruction? |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=421–6 |year=2005 |pmid=15758914 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23932009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tringali A, Didden P, Repici A, Spaander M, Bourke MJ, Williams SJ, Spicak J, Drastich P, Mutignani M, Perri V, Roy A, Johnston K, Costamagna G |title=Endoscopic treatment of malignant gastric and duodenal strictures: a prospective, multicenter study |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=66–75 |year=2014 |pmid=23932009 |doi=10.1016/j.gie.2013.06.032 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10650271">{{cite journal |vauthors=Langhorst J, Schumacher B, Deselaers T, Neuhaus H |title=Successful endoscopic therapy of a gastric outlet obstruction due to a gallstone with intracorporeal laser lithotripsy: a case of Bouveret's syndrome |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=209–13 |year=2000 |pmid=10650271 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17137860">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gemmel C, Weickert U, Eickhoff A, Schilling D, Riemann JF |title=Successful treatment of gallstone ileus (Bouveret's syndrome) by using extracorporal shock wave lithotripsy and argon plasma coagulation |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=173–5 |year=2007 |pmid=17137860 |doi=10.1016/j.gie.2006.05.025 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17383468">{{cite journal |vauthors=Polistena A, Santi F, Tiberi R, Bagarani M |title=Endoscopic treatment of Bouveret's syndrome |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=704–6 |year=2007 |pmid=17383468 |doi=10.1016/j.gie.2006.12.022 |url=}}</ref>
** High success rate
** Brief hospital stay
** Low [[morbidity]] and [[Mortality rate|mortality]]


==== Contraindications to surgery ====
==== Contraindications to surgery ====
* Severe [[malnutrition]]
Contraindications to [[surgery]] include severe [[malnutrition]] and advanced unresectable [[cancer]].
* Advanced [[cancer]]
 
==== Complications of surgery ====
==== Complications of surgery ====
Complications arising after [[surgery]] include:<ref name="pmid3970597">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jaffin BW, Kaye MD |title=The prognosis of gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Ann. Surg. |volume=201 |issue=2 |pages=176–9 |year=1985 |pmid=3970597 |pmc=1250637 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8803569">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khullar SK, DiSario JA |title=Gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. Clin. N. Am. |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=585–603 |year=1996 |pmid=8803569 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
Complications arising after [[surgery]] include perforation due to [[Stent|stenting]], stent reocclusion, stent migration, stomach dilation, gastric wall edema, anastomotic leak and postgastrectomy syndromes.<ref name="pmid3970597">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jaffin BW, Kaye MD |title=The prognosis of gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Ann. Surg. |volume=201 |issue=2 |pages=176–9 |year=1985 |pmid=3970597 |pmc=1250637 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8803569">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khullar SK, DiSario JA |title=Gastric outlet obstruction |journal=Gastrointest. Endosc. Clin. N. Am. |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=585–603 |year=1996 |pmid=8803569 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* [[Perforation]]: in [[Patient|patients]] undergoing [[Endoscopy|endoscopic surgery]] and [[Stent|stenting]]
* [[Stent]] reocclusion
* [[Stent]] migration
* [[Edema]] of the [[Stomach|gastric]] wall
* [[Dilation]] and dysmotility of [[stomach]]
* [[Anastomosis|Anastomotic]] leak
* Postgastrectomy syndromes:
** [[Afferent loop syndrome]]
** [[Gastric dumping syndrome|Dumping syndrome]]
** [[Gastritis|Alkaline gastritis]]
 
==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}

Latest revision as of 16:31, 15 February 2018

Gastric outlet obstruction Microchapters

Home

Overview

Classification

Pathophysiology

Causes

Differentiating Gastric outlet obstruction from other Diseases

Epidemiology and Demographics

Risk Factors

Screening

Diagnosis

Treatment

Medical Therapy
Surgery

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1];Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sudarshana Datta, MD [2]

Synonyms and keywords: GOO

Overview

Gastric outlet obstruction (GOO) occurs due to pathologies that cause intrinsic or extrinsic obstruction of the pylorus and antrum. Infiltration, scar formation or inflammation of the gastric outlet leads to intrinsic obstruction, while malignancy of neighboring structures such as the pancreas, gallbladder, liver and duodenum may lead to extrinsic obstruction of the gastric outlet. Common causes of GOO include peptic ulcer disease (PUD), gastric polyps, caustic ingestion, duodenal stricture, systemic amyloidosis of the gastrointestinal tract, eosinophillic gastroenteritis and obstruction by gallstones. Five percent of all cases of peptic ulcer disease (which is the most common benign cause of GOO) worldwide, develop gastric outlet obstruction. GOO presents as nausea, vomiting, dehydration, electrolyte abnormalities, weight loss, malnutrition, fullness of epigastrium, early satiety and bloating. Laboratory studies of patients may show hypokalemic hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis which is a characteristic feature due to vomiting. In case of of GOO due to suspected PUD, tests for H pylori should also be performed in patients. Barium upper GI studies help in the determination of site of obstruction, visualization of the gastric silhouette, presence of gastric dilation, pylorus narrowing, presence of ulcers, tumors and differentiation from gastroparesis. Upper endoscopy performed in patients may help with visualization of the gastric outlet, biopsy sampling in case of intraluminal pathology and thereby helps rule out the presence of malignancy in patients with symptoms of peptic ulcer disease. Surgery is the primary modality of treatment for patients with GOO. It is required for more than 75 percent of patients with scarring, fibrosis, and tumors. The aims of surgery in case of GOO include relief of obstruction, relief in patients with failure to respond to medical therapy or failure to improve even after 72 hours of therapy and correction of PUD symptoms. Various types of surgical procedures performed in cases of GOO are vagotomy and antrectomy, gastrojejunostomy (vagotomy and antrectomy with Billroth II reconstruction), balloon dilatation, pylorotomy, pyloroplasty and laparoscopic techniques. Care must be taken to look out for various complications arising after surgery such as perforation, anastomotic leak, dilation and dysmotility of stomach, edema of the gastric wall and postgastrectomy syndromes.

Classification

Gastric outlet obstruction (GOO) may be due to any underlying condition that results in mechanical obstruction to emptying of gastric contents. GOO is classified based on the underlying cause into benign GOO and malignant GOO. Statistically, benign GOO comprises 37 percent of cases and includes peptic ulcer disease whereas malignant GOO comprises of the remaining 53 percent of cases.

Pathophysiology

It is understood that GOO is the result of multiple intrinsic (lumen & wall) or extrinsic (involving neighbouring structures) pathologies that involve the antrum and the pylorus.

Causes

Causes of GOO may be classified as benign and malignant.

Benign causes

Benign causes of GOO can either be congenital or acquired. The acquired causes of GOO may further be categorized into acute or chronic. The acquired acute causes of GOO results from edema and inflammation of antrum and the pylorus. The acquired chronic causes of GOO results from intrinsic obstruction due to fibrosis and scar formation. In general, benign causes of GOO include:[1][2][3][4]

Congenital causes of gastric outlet obstruction include:[5][6]

Malignant causes

Differentiating Gastric outlet obstruction from Other Diseases

Gastric outlet obstruction must be differentiated from other conditions that cause abdominal pain, heartburn, bloating, nausea and vomiting such as:[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]

Differential Diagnosis
Disease Symptoms Diagnosis Other findings
Pain Nausea & Vomiting Heartburn Belching or Bloating Weight loss Loss of Appetite Stools Endoscopy findings
Location Aggravating Factors Alleviating Factors
Gastric outlet obstruction (GOO) Food - ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Black stools in case of peptic ulcer disease(PUD)

Sodium chloride load test

  • Presence of >400 mL NaCl solution in stomach after half an hour, is diagnostic of GOO.

Needle-guided biopsy

Acute gastritis Food Antacids ✔ ✔ ✔ - ✔ Black stools -
Chronic gastritis Food Antacids ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ - H. pylori gastritis

Lymphocytic gastritis

  • Enlarged folds
  • Aphthoid erosions
 -
Atrophic gastritis - - ✔ - ✔ ✔ - H. pylori

Autoimmune

Diagnosed by:
Crohn's disease - - - - - ✔ ✔
  • Thickened antral folds
  • Antral narrowing
  • Hypoperistalsis
  • Duodenal strictures
GERD
  • Spicy food
  • Tight fitting clothing
 ✔

(Suspect delayed gastric emptying)

✔ - - - - Other symptoms:
Peptic ulcer disease

Duodenal ulcer

  • Pain aggravates with empty stomach

Gastric ulcer

  • Pain aggravates with food
  • Pain alleviates with food
 ✔ ✔ - - - Gastric ulcers
  • Most ulcers are at the junction of fundus and antrum
  • 0.5-2.5cm

Duodenal ulcers

  • Found in the first part of duodenum
  • <1cm
 Other diagnostic tests
Gastrinoma - - ✔

(Suspect gastric outlet obstruction)

✔ - - - Useful in collecting the tissue for biopsy

Diagnostic tests

Gastric Adenocarcinoma - - ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Esophagogastroduodenoscopy
  • Multiple biopsies are taken to establish the diagnosis and determine histological variant.
 Other symptoms
Primary gastric lymphoma - - - - - ✔ - - Useful in collecting the tissue for biopsy Other symptoms
  • Painless swollen lymph nodes in neck and armpit
  • Night sweats

Epidemiology and Demographics

The epidemiology of GOO is as follows:[21][22]

Diagnosis

History

The following history is relevant in patients with GOO:[23][24]

Symptoms

The clinical presentation of GOO is categorized into early and late stage symptoms. The early stage symptoms include nausea and vomiting (characteristic feature). Vomiting is intermittent, non bilious, occurs after one hour after consuming meal and contains undigested particles of food leading to dehydration.[25][7]

The late stage symptoms include abdominal fullness, malnutrition, weight loss, bloating, and early satiety.[9][26]

Physical Examination

In the late stages of GOO, patients may develop signs of malnutrition and incomplete obstruction. Signs of malnutrition include weight loss and signs of dehydration. Signs of incomplete obstruction include findings such as abdominal mass, visible gastric peristalsis, fullness of epigastrium and a tympanitic mass on percussion. {{#ev:youtube|UVJYQlUm2A8}}

Laboratory Findings

Laboratory investigations suggestive of GOO include hypokalemic hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis (due to vomiting). In order to assess the severity and etiology of GOO, other investigations such as CBC, electrolyte panel, tests for H Pylori and liver function tests may be done.[27]

Imaging Findings

Imaging studies such as plain radiographs, contrast upper gastrointestinal (GI) studies and computed tomography (CT) with oral contrast may be used for evaluating patients with symptoms of GOO.

X ray

An X-ray (obstruction series or barium study) may be helpful in the diagnosis of GOO. Findings on an x-ray suggestive of GOO include gastric dilatation. Findings on barium or Gastrografin study help in the determination of site of obstruction, visualization of the gastric silhouette, gastric dilation, narrowed pylorus, presence of ulcers and tumors. GOO may also be differentiated from gastroparesis in which gastric dilation is not associated with the narrowing of the pylorus.

Computed tomography (CT) with oral contrast

CT with oral contrast or CT-guided biopsy may be done in suspected cases with equivocal findings on X Ray and Barium Upper GI studies. Findings of CT are variable and include those of the underlying condition.

Other Diagnostic Studies

Endoscopy

Upper endoscopy may be helpful in the diagnosis of GOO. An upper endoscopy aids in visualization of the gastric outlet, biopsy sampling in case of intraluminal pathology. In addition, endoscopic biopsy helps rule out the presence of malignancy in patients with symptoms of peptic ulcer disease (PUD):[29][30]

Sodium chloride load test

In sodium chloride test, the patient is infused with 750 mililiters of sodium chloride solution into the stomach via a nasogastric tube (NGT). After half an hour if > 400 mL is left in the stomach, the diagnosis of GOO is made.[31]

Needle-guided biopsy

Needle guided biopsy is used to evaluate patients for metastasis, in order to detect the primary tumor on histology.

Treatment

Medical Therapy

  • Medical therapy may be given to all patients prior to surgery in cases of gastric outlet obstruction. Medical therapy primarily involves supportive care in preparation of surgery with hydration, NG tube decompression, correction of electrolyte imbalances. [32]
  • Endoscopic stent placement for advanced GI cancer causing GOO.[33]

Surgery

Surgery is the primary modality of treatment for patients with GOO. It is required for more than 75 percent of patients, with scarring, fibrosis and tumors. The aims of surgery in case of GOO include relief of obstruction, patients with failure to respond to medical therapy or failure to improve even after 72 hours of therapy, and correction of PUD symptoms.

Guidelines for surgery

Surgery should be considered only in patients who are able to tolerate the surgical procedure. Major resections of the tumor must be done in the absence of metastatic disease. In the case of metastatic disease, extent of surgery needs to be determined.

Types of surgical procedures

The types of surgical procedures performed in cases of GOO are as follows:[35][36][37]

Contraindications to surgery

Contraindications to surgery include severe malnutrition and advanced unresectable cancer.

Complications of surgery

Complications arising after surgery include perforation due to stenting, stent reocclusion, stent migration, stomach dilation, gastric wall edema, anastomotic leak and postgastrectomy syndromes.[41][42]

References

  1. ↑ Bradley EL, Clements JL (1981). "Idiopathic duodenal obstruction: an unappreciated complication of pancreatitis". Ann. Surg. 193 (5): 638–48. PMC 1345138. PMID 7235767.
  2. ↑ Zargar SA, Kochhar R, Nagi B, Mehta S, Mehta SK (1992). "Ingestion of strong corrosive alkalis: spectrum of injury to upper gastrointestinal tract and natural history". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 87 (3): 337–41. PMID 1539568.
  3. ↑ Poley JW, Steyerberg EW, Kuipers EJ, Dees J, Hartmans R, Tilanus HW, Siersema PD (2004). "Ingestion of acid and alkaline agents: outcome and prognostic value of early upper endoscopy". Gastrointest. Endosc. 60 (3): 372–7. PMID 15332026.
  4. ↑ Ciftci AO, Senocak ME, Büyükpamukçu N, Hiçsönmez A (1999). "Gastric outlet obstruction due to corrosive ingestion: incidence and outcome". Pediatr. Surg. Int. 15 (2): 88–91. doi:10.1007/s003830050523. PMID 10079337.
  5. ↑ Kreel L, Ellis H (1965). "Pyloric stenosis in adults: A clinical and radiological study of 100 consecutive patients". Gut. 6 (3): 253–61. PMC 1552275. PMID 18668780.
  6. ↑ Gheorghe L, Băncilă I, Gheorghe C, Herlea V, Vasilescu C, Aposteanu G (2002). "Antro-duodenal tuberculosis causing gastric outlet obstruction--a rare presentation of a protean disease". Rom J Gastroenterol. 11 (2): 149–52. PMID 12145672.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Urayama S, Kozarek R, Ball T, Brandabur J, Traverso L, Ryan J, Wechter D (1995). "Presentation and treatment of annular pancreas in an adult population". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 90 (6): 995–9. PMID 7771437.
  8. ↑ Johnson CD (1995). "Gastric outlet obstruction malignant until proved otherwise". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 90 (10): 1740. PMID 7572886.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Shone DN, Nikoomanesh P, Smith-Meek MM, Bender JS (1995). "Malignancy is the most common cause of gastric outlet obstruction in the era of H2 blockers". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 90 (10): 1769–70. PMID 7572891.
  10. ↑ Johnson CD, Ellis H (1990). "Gastric outlet obstruction now predicts malignancy". Br J Surg. 77 (9): 1023–4. PMID 2207566.
  11. ↑ Roy PK, Venzon DJ, Shojamanesh H, Abou-Saif A, Peghini P, Doppman JL, Gibril F, Jensen RT (2000). "Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Clinical presentation in 261 patients". Medicine (Baltimore). 79 (6): 379–411. PMID 11144036.
  12. ↑ Sugimachi K, Inokuchi K, Kuwano H, Ooiwa T (1984). "Acute gastritis clinically classified in accordance with data from both upper GI series and endoscopy". Scand J Gastroenterol. 19 (1): 31–7. PMID 6710074.
  13. ↑ Sipponen P, Maaroos HI (2015). "Chronic gastritis". Scand J Gastroenterol. 50 (6): 657–67. doi:10.3109/00365521.2015.1019918. PMC 4673514. PMID 25901896.
  14. ↑ Sartor RB (2006). "Mechanisms of disease: pathogenesis of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis". Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 3 (7): 390–407. doi:10.1038/ncpgasthep0528. PMID 16819502.
  15. ↑ Sipponen P (1989). "Atrophic gastritis as a premalignant condition". Ann Med. 21 (4): 287–90. PMID 2789799.
  16. ↑ Badillo R, Francis D (2014). "Diagnosis and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease". World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther. 5 (3): 105–12. doi:10.4292/wjgpt.v5.i3.105. PMC 4133436. PMID 25133039.
  17. ↑ Ramakrishnan K, Salinas RC (2007). "Peptic ulcer disease". Am Fam Physician. 76 (7): 1005–12. PMID 17956071.
  18. ↑ Banasch M, Schmitz F (2007). "Diagnosis and treatment of gastrinoma in the era of proton pump inhibitors". Wien Klin Wochenschr. 119 (19–20): 573–8. doi:10.1007/s00508-007-0884-2. PMID 17985090.
  19. ↑ Dicken BJ, Bigam DL, Cass C, Mackey JR, Joy AA, Hamilton SM (2005). "Gastric adenocarcinoma: review and considerations for future directions". Ann Surg. 241 (1): 27–39. PMC 1356843. PMID 15621988.
  20. ↑ Ghimire P, Wu GY, Zhu L (2011). "Primary gastrointestinal lymphoma". World J Gastroenterol. 17 (6): 697–707. doi:10.3748/wjg.v17.i6.697. PMC 3042647. PMID 21390139.
  21. ↑ Lin KJ, García Rodríguez LA, Hernández-Díaz S (2011). "Systematic review of peptic ulcer disease incidence rates: do studies without validation provide reliable estimates?". Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 20 (7): 718–28. doi:10.1002/pds.2153. PMID 21626606.
  22. ↑ Sung JJ, Kuipers EJ, El-Serag HB (2009). "Systematic review: the global incidence and prevalence of peptic ulcer disease". Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 29 (9): 938–46. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.03960.x. PMID 19220208.
  23. ↑ Green ST, Drury JK, McCallion J, Erwin L (1987). "Carcinoid tumour presenting as recurrent gastric outlet obstruction: a case of long-term survival". Scott Med J. 32 (2): 54–5. doi:10.1177/003693308703200212. PMID 3602991.
  24. ↑ Chowdhury A, Dhali GK, Banerjee PK (1996). "Etiology of gastric outlet obstruction". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 91 (8): 1679. PMID 8759707.
  25. ↑ Miner PB, Harri JE, McPhee MS (1982). "Intermittent gastric outlet obstruction from a pedunculated gastric polyp". Gastrointest. Endosc. 28 (3): 219–20. PMID 7129059.
  26. ↑ Cappell MS, Davis M (2006). "Characterization of Bouveret's syndrome: a comprehensive review of 128 cases". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 101 (9): 2139–46. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.00645.x. PMID 16817848.
  27. ↑ Hangen D, Maltz GS, Anderson JE, Knauer CM (1989). "Marked hypergastrinemia in gastric outlet obstruction". J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 11 (4): 442–4. PMID 2760432.
  28. ↑ Chaudhuri TK, Greenwald AJ, Heading RC (1975). "Measurement of gastric emptying time--a comparative study between nonisotopic aspiration method and new radioisotopic technique". Am J Dig Dis. 20 (11): 1063–6. PMID 1199997.
  29. ↑ Lau JY, Chung SC, Sung JJ, Chan AC, Ng EK, Suen RC, Li AK (1996). "Through-the-scope balloon dilation for pyloric stenosis: long-term results". Gastrointest. Endosc. 43 (2 Pt 1): 98–101. PMID 8635729.
  30. ↑ Awan A, Johnston DE, Jamal MM (1998). "Gastric outlet obstruction with benign endoscopic biopsy should be further explored for malignancy". Gastrointest. Endosc. 48 (5): 497–500. PMID 9831838.
  31. ↑ Goldstein H, Boyle JD (1965). "The saline load test--a bedside evaluation of gastric retention". Gastroenterology. 49 (4): 375–80. PMID 5831782.
  32. ↑ Gouma DJ, van Geenen R, van Gulik T, de Wit LT, Obertop H (1999). "Surgical palliative treatment in bilio-pancreatic malignancy". Ann. Oncol. 10 Suppl 4: 269–72. PMID 10436838.
  33. ↑ Holt AP, Patel M, Ahmed MM (2004). "Palliation of patients with malignant gastroduodenal obstruction with self-expanding metallic stents: the treatment of choice?". Gastrointest. Endosc. 60 (6): 1010–7. PMID 15605026.
  34. ↑ Kozarek RA (1993). "Dilation therapy for gastric outlet obstruction. Are balloons a bust?". J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 17 (1): 2–4. PMID 8409292.
  35. ↑ Alam TA, Baines M, Parker MC (2003). "The management of gastric outlet obstruction secondary to inoperable cancer". Surg Endosc. 17 (2): 320–3. doi:10.1007/s00464-001-9197-0. PMID 12384765.
  36. ↑ Chopita N, Landoni N, Ross A, Villaverde A (2007). "Malignant gastroenteric obstruction: therapeutic options". Gastrointest. Endosc. Clin. N. Am. 17 (3): 533–44, vi–vii. doi:10.1016/j.giec.2007.05.007. PMID 17640581.
  37. ↑ Wong YT, Brams DM, Munson L, Sanders L, Heiss F, Chase M, Birkett DH (2002). "Gastric outlet obstruction secondary to pancreatic cancer: surgical vs endoscopic palliation". Surg Endosc. 16 (2): 310–2. doi:10.1007/s00464-001-9061-2. PMID 11967685.
  38. ↑ Kantsevoy SV, Jagannath SB, Niiyama H, Chung SS, Cotton PB, Gostout CJ, Hawes RH, Pasricha PJ, Magee CA, Vaughn CA, Barlow D, Shimonaka H, Kalloo AN (2005). "Endoscopic gastrojejunostomy with survival in a porcine model". Gastrointest. Endosc. 62 (2): 287–92. PMID 16046997.
  39. ↑ Chopita N, Vaillaverde A, Cope C, Bernedo A, Martinez H, Landoni N, Jmelnitzky A, Burgos H (2005). "Endoscopic gastroenteric anastomosis using magnets". Endoscopy. 37 (4): 313–7. doi:10.1055/s-2005-861358. PMID 15824939.
  40. ↑ No JH, Kim SW, Lim CH, Kim JS, Cho YK, Park JM, Lee IS, Choi MG, Choi KY (2013). "Long-term outcome of palliative therapy for gastric outlet obstruction caused by unresectable gastric cancer in patients with good performance status: endoscopic stenting versus surgery". Gastrointest. Endosc. 78 (1): 55–62. doi:10.1016/j.gie.2013.01.041. PMID 23522025.
  41. ↑ Jaffin BW, Kaye MD (1985). "The prognosis of gastric outlet obstruction". Ann. Surg. 201 (2): 176–9. PMC 1250637. PMID 3970597.
  42. ↑ Khullar SK, DiSario JA (1996). "Gastric outlet obstruction". Gastrointest. Endosc. Clin. N. Am. 6 (3): 585–603. PMID 8803569.

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