Gastroparesis pathophysiology: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
The exact [[pathogenesis]] of gastroparesis is not fully understood. However, [[gastric]] emptying process is the result of interaction of [[smooth muscles]], extrinsic and [[enteric]] [[autonomic nervous system]], and [[Interstitial cell of Cajal|interstitial cells of Cajal]] (ICC). Loss of expression of [[neuronal]] [[nitric oxide synthase]] (n[[Nitric oxide synthase|NOS]]) and loss of [[Interstitial cell of Cajal|interstitial cells of Cajal]] (ICC) play pivotal role in the [[pathogenesis]] of gastroparesis. | The exact [[pathogenesis]] of gastroparesis is not fully understood. However, [[gastric]] emptying process is the result of interaction of [[smooth muscles]], extrinsic and [[enteric]] [[autonomic nervous system]], and [[Interstitial cell of Cajal|interstitial cells of Cajal]] (ICC). Loss of expression of [[neuronal]] [[nitric oxide synthase]] (n[[Nitric oxide synthase|NOS]]) and loss of [[Interstitial cell of Cajal|interstitial cells of Cajal]] (ICC) play pivotal role in the [[pathogenesis]] of gastroparesis. Recent studies suggest that the loss of antioxidant gene expression (NRF2 gene) can contribute to the development of gastroparesis. NRF2 regulates expression of phase II antioxidant genes such as HO-1, SOD1, SOD2, GCLC, GCLM, CAT, and GPX1. On [[microscopic]] [[histopathological]] analysis of full thickness biopsy of the [[gastric]] body. Decreased number of [[Interstitial cell of Cajal|interstitial cells of Cajal]] (also called fibroblast like cells) in circular muscle layer, [[immune cells]] infiltration of [[gastric]] tissue especially [[myenteric plexus]] predominantly consisting of [[lymphocytes]] and [[macrophages]] showing [[CD45]] and [[CD68]] immunoreactivity, and [[enteric]] [[nerve fiber]] loss within the circular [[Smooth muscle|smooth muscle layer]] are characteristic findings of gastroparesis. | ||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
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*The exact [[pathogenesis]] of gastroparesis is not fully understood. However, it is well known that [[gastric]] emptying process is the result of interaction of [[smooth muscles]], extrinsic and [[enteric]] [[autonomic nervous system]], and interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC).<ref name="pmid23350043">{{cite journal| author=Oh JH, Pasricha PJ| title=Recent advances in the pathophysiology and treatment of gastroparesis. | journal=J Neurogastroenterol Motil | year= 2013 | volume= 19 | issue= 1 | pages= 18-24 | pmid=23350043 | doi=10.5056/jnm.2013.19.1.18 | pmc=3548121 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23350043 }}</ref> | *The exact [[pathogenesis]] of gastroparesis is not fully understood. However, it is well known that [[gastric]] emptying process is the result of interaction of [[smooth muscles]], extrinsic and [[enteric]] [[autonomic nervous system]], and interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC).<ref name="pmid23350043">{{cite journal| author=Oh JH, Pasricha PJ| title=Recent advances in the pathophysiology and treatment of gastroparesis. | journal=J Neurogastroenterol Motil | year= 2013 | volume= 19 | issue= 1 | pages= 18-24 | pmid=23350043 | doi=10.5056/jnm.2013.19.1.18 | pmc=3548121 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23350043 }}</ref> | ||
*The final process for the development of delayed of [[gastric]] emptying is increased tone of [[pylorus]]. | *The final process for the development of delayed of [[gastric]] emptying is increased tone of [[pylorus]]. | ||
*[[Gastric]] emptying is mediated by the [[vagus nerve]]. The process of gastric emptying involves [[Fundus| | *[[Gastric]] emptying is mediated by the [[vagus nerve]]. The process of gastric emptying involves the following sequential steps: | ||
**[[Fundus (stomach)|Fundal]] accommodation | |||
**[[Antrum|Antral]] [[contraction]] | |||
**[[Pylorus|Pyloric]] [[relaxation]] | |||
*[[Interstitial cell of Cajal|Interstitial cells of Cajal]] generate the contractile rhythm within the [[gut]] and possess a unique ability to produce slow waves in [[gastrointestinal]] [[smooth muscles]]. | |||
*This electrical slow wave activity is the determinant of the characteristic frequency of phasic [[contractions]] of the [[stomach]], [[intestine]] and [[colon]] as well as the direction and velocity of propagation of [[Peristalsis|peristaltic]] activity, in coordination with the [[enteric nervous system]].<ref name="pmid12790758">{{cite journal| author=Camborová P, Hubka P, Sulková I, Hulín I| title=The pacemaker activity of interstitial cells of Cajal and gastric electrical activity. | journal=Physiol Res | year= 2003 | volume= 52 | issue= 3 | pages= 275-84 | pmid=12790758 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12790758 }}</ref> | *This electrical slow wave activity is the determinant of the characteristic frequency of phasic [[contractions]] of the [[stomach]], [[intestine]] and [[colon]] as well as the direction and velocity of propagation of [[Peristalsis|peristaltic]] activity, in coordination with the [[enteric nervous system]].<ref name="pmid12790758">{{cite journal| author=Camborová P, Hubka P, Sulková I, Hulín I| title=The pacemaker activity of interstitial cells of Cajal and gastric electrical activity. | journal=Physiol Res | year= 2003 | volume= 52 | issue= 3 | pages= 275-84 | pmid=12790758 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12790758 }}</ref> | ||
*[[Interstitial cell of Cajal|Interstitial cells of Cajal]] regulate both [[gastric]] pacemaker activity and [[enteric]] [[neurons]], which then initiate [[smooth muscle cell]] activity.<ref name="pmid25667023">{{cite journal| author=Parkman HP| title=Idiopathic gastroparesis. | journal=Gastroenterol Clin North Am | year= 2015 | volume= 44 | issue= 1 | pages= 59-68 | pmid=25667023 | doi=10.1016/j.gtc.2014.11.015 | pmc=4324534 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25667023 }}</ref> Slow wave activity in human [[stomach]] originates from a pacemaker region at the mid/upper corpus on the [[Greater curvature of the stomach|greater curvature]]. From this pacemaker region, a band of activity is formed rapidly and propagated in an organized fashion towards the distal [[antrum]].<ref name="pmid25313679">{{cite journal| author=Cheng LK| title=Slow wave conduction patterns in the stomach: from Waller's foundations to current challenges. | journal=Acta Physiol (Oxf) | year= 2015 | volume= 213 | issue= 2 | pages= 384-93 | pmid=25313679 | doi=10.1111/apha.12406 | pmc=4405773 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25313679 }}</ref> Hence, tone of [[pyloric sphincter]] plays an important role in the regulation of [[gastric]] emptying. | *[[Interstitial cell of Cajal|Interstitial cells of Cajal]] regulate both [[gastric]] pacemaker activity and [[enteric]] [[neurons]], which then initiate [[smooth muscle cell]] activity.<ref name="pmid25667023">{{cite journal| author=Parkman HP| title=Idiopathic gastroparesis. | journal=Gastroenterol Clin North Am | year= 2015 | volume= 44 | issue= 1 | pages= 59-68 | pmid=25667023 | doi=10.1016/j.gtc.2014.11.015 | pmc=4324534 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25667023 }}</ref> Slow wave activity in human [[stomach]] originates from a pacemaker region at the mid/upper corpus on the [[Greater curvature of the stomach|greater curvature]]. From this pacemaker region, a band of activity is formed rapidly and propagated in an organized fashion towards the distal [[antrum]].<ref name="pmid25313679">{{cite journal| author=Cheng LK| title=Slow wave conduction patterns in the stomach: from Waller's foundations to current challenges. | journal=Acta Physiol (Oxf) | year= 2015 | volume= 213 | issue= 2 | pages= 384-93 | pmid=25313679 | doi=10.1111/apha.12406 | pmc=4405773 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25313679 }}</ref> Hence, tone of [[pyloric sphincter]] plays an important role in the regulation of [[gastric]] emptying. | ||
*Non-[[adrenergic]], non-[[cholinergic]] (NANC) innervation to the [[pylorus]] is predominantly inhibitory and mediates [[relaxation]] of the sphincter.<ref name="pmid4152775">{{cite journal| author=Anuras S, Cooke AR, Christensen J| title=An inhibitory innervation at the gastroduodenal junction. | journal=J Clin Invest | year= 1974 | volume= 54 | issue= 3 | pages= 529-35 | pmid=4152775 | doi=10.1172/JCI107789 | pmc=301585 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4152775 }}</ref> | *Non-[[adrenergic]], non-[[cholinergic]] (NANC) innervation to the [[pylorus]] is predominantly inhibitory and mediates [[relaxation]] of the sphincter.<ref name="pmid4152775">{{cite journal| author=Anuras S, Cooke AR, Christensen J| title=An inhibitory innervation at the gastroduodenal junction. | journal=J Clin Invest | year= 1974 | volume= 54 | issue= 3 | pages= 529-35 | pmid=4152775 | doi=10.1172/JCI107789 | pmc=301585 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4152775 }}</ref> | ||
*A high density of [[nitric oxide synthase]]-immunopositive [[nerve cells]] and fibres have been been demonstrated in the [[pylorus]].<ref name="pmid7532815">{{cite journal| author=Ekblad E, Mulder H, Uddman R, Sundler F| title=NOS-containing neurons in the rat gut and coeliac ganglia. | journal=Neuropharmacology | year= 1994 | volume= 33 | issue= 11 | pages= 1323-31 | pmid=7532815 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7532815 }}</ref> | *A high density of [[nitric oxide synthase]]-immunopositive [[nerve cells]] and fibres have been been demonstrated in the [[pylorus]].<ref name="pmid7532815">{{cite journal| author=Ekblad E, Mulder H, Uddman R, Sundler F| title=NOS-containing neurons in the rat gut and coeliac ganglia. | journal=Neuropharmacology | year= 1994 | volume= 33 | issue= 11 | pages= 1323-31 | pmid=7532815 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7532815 }}</ref> | ||
*They are called inhibitory nitrergic neurons. Expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) activity from nitrergic neurons in gastric wall secrete nitric oxide (NO). | *They are called inhibitory nitrergic [[neurons]]. Expression of [[neuronal]] [[nitric oxide synthase]] (nNOS) activity from nitrergic [[neurons]] in [[gastric]] wall secrete [[nitric oxide]] ([[Nitric oxide|NO]]). | ||
**Loss of expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase ( | *Major function of [[Nitric oxide|NO]] from these nitrergic [[enteric]] [[nerves]] include accommodation of the [[fundus]] and relaxation of [[pylorus]] through [[smooth muscle]] [[relaxation]]. | ||
**Loss of interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) | *These [[enteric]] [[nerves]] also control the [[muscle tone]] of the [[lower esophageal sphincter]], the [[sphincter of Oddi]], and the [[anus]].<ref name="pmid18640116">{{cite journal| author=Sivarao DV, Mashimo H, Goyal RK| title=Pyloric sphincter dysfunction in nNOS-/- and W/Wv mutant mice: animal models of gastroparesis and duodenogastric reflux. | journal=Gastroenterology | year= 2008 | volume= 135 | issue= 4 | pages= 1258-66 | pmid=18640116 | doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2008.06.039 | pmc=2745304 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18640116 }}</ref> The most important mechanism behind the [[pathogenesis]] of gastroparesis appears to be:<ref name="pmid23350043" /> | ||
**Loss of expression of [[neuronal]] [[nitric oxide synthase]] (n[[Nitric oxide synthase|NOS]]) | |||
**Loss of [[Interstitial cell of Cajal|interstitial cells of Cajal]] (ICC) | |||
==Genetics== | ==Genetics== | ||
*Recent studies suggest that the loss of antioxidant gene expression (NRF2 gene) can contribute to the development of gastroparesis. NRF2 regulates expression of | *Recent studies suggest that the loss of [[antioxidant]] [[gene expression]] (NRF2 [[gene]]) can contribute to the development of gastroparesis. NRF2 regulates expression of phase II antioxidant [[genes]] such as HO-1, [[SOD1]], [[SOD2]], [[GCLC]], [[GCLM]], [[CAT]], and [[GPX1]].<ref name="pmid21605664">{{cite journal| author=Mukhopadhyay S, Sekhar KR, Hale AB, Channon KM, Farrugia G, Freeman ML et al.| title=Loss of NRF2 impairs gastric nitrergic stimulation and function. | journal=Free Radic Biol Med | year= 2011 | volume= 51 | issue= 3 | pages= 619-25 | pmid=21605664 | doi=10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2011.04.044 | pmc=3129370 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21605664 }}</ref> | ||
*Elevated expression of the [[enzyme]] [[heme oxygenase]]-1 may mitigate the development of gastroparesis.<ref name="pmid29161307">{{cite journal| author=Gibbons SJ, Grover M, Choi KM, Wadhwa A, Zubair A, Wilson LA et al.| title=Repeat polymorphisms in the Homo sapiens heme oxygenase-1 gene in diabetic and idiopathic gastroparesis. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2017 | volume= 12 | issue= 11 | pages= e0187772 | pmid=29161307 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0187772 | pmc=5697813 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29161307 }}</ref> | |||
*High [[oxidative stress]] in [[Interstitial cell of Cajal|interstitial cells of Cajal]] and nitrergic [[enteric]] [[nerves]] are the potential cause of injury and decrease in their numbers.<ref name="pmid21605664" /> | |||
==Associated Conditions== | ==Associated Conditions== | ||
Diabetes | The following conditions may be associated with gastroparesis: | ||
* [[Diabetes]] | |||
Other motility disorders of | * Other motility disorders of [[gastrointestinal tract]] such as achalasia, [[irritable bowel syndrome]] and [[constipation]].<ref name="pmid29177065">{{cite journal| author=Triadafilopoulos G, Nguyen L, Clarke JO| title=Patients with symptoms of delayed gastric emptying have a high prevalence of oesophageal dysmotility, irrespective of scintigraphic evidence of gastroparesis. | journal=BMJ Open Gastroenterol | year= 2017 | volume= 4 | issue= 1 | pages= e000169 | pmid=29177065 | doi=10.1136/bmjgast-2017-000169 | pmc=5689484 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29177065 }}</ref> | ||
* [[Neurological illness|Neurological diseases]] eg. [[Parkinson's disease]] | |||
Neurological diseases eg. Parkinson | * [[Connective tissue disease|Collagen vascular disorders]] | ||
Collagen vascular disorders | |||
==Gross Pathology== | ==Gross Pathology== | ||
On [[gross pathology]], no abnormalities seen on obtaining full thickness [[biopsy]] of [[gastric]] tissue. | |||
==Microscopic Pathology== | ==Microscopic Pathology== | ||
On [[microscopic]] [[histopathological]] analysis of full thickness biopsy of the [[gastric]] body. Decreased number of [[Interstitial cell of Cajal|interstitial cells of Cajal]] (also called fibroblast like cells) in circular muscle layer, [[immune cells]] infiltration of [[gastric]] tissue especially [[myenteric plexus]] predominantly consisting of [[lymphocytes]] and [[macrophages]] showing [[CD45]] and [[CD68]] immunoreactivity,<ref name="pmid25667023" /> and [[enteric]] [[nerve fiber]] loss within the circular [[Smooth muscle|smooth muscle layer]] are characteristic findings of gastroparesis.<ref name="pmid22339929">{{cite journal| author=Grover M, Bernard CE, Pasricha PJ, Lurken MS, Faussone-Pellegrini MS, Smyrk TC et al.| title=Clinical-histological associations in gastroparesis: results from the Gastroparesis Clinical Research Consortium. | journal=Neurogastroenterol Motil | year= 2012 | volume= 24 | issue= 6 | pages= 531-9, e249 | pmid=22339929 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2982.2012.01894.x | pmc=3353102 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22339929 }}</ref> | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Latest revision as of 15:37, 20 February 2018
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Madhu Sigdel M.B.B.S.[2]
Overview
The exact pathogenesis of gastroparesis is not fully understood. However, gastric emptying process is the result of interaction of smooth muscles, extrinsic and enteric autonomic nervous system, and interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC). Loss of expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and loss of interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) play pivotal role in the pathogenesis of gastroparesis. Recent studies suggest that the loss of antioxidant gene expression (NRF2 gene) can contribute to the development of gastroparesis. NRF2 regulates expression of phase II antioxidant genes such as HO-1, SOD1, SOD2, GCLC, GCLM, CAT, and GPX1. On microscopic histopathological analysis of full thickness biopsy of the gastric body. Decreased number of interstitial cells of Cajal (also called fibroblast like cells) in circular muscle layer, immune cells infiltration of gastric tissue especially myenteric plexus predominantly consisting of lymphocytes and macrophages showing CD45 and CD68 immunoreactivity, and enteric nerve fiber loss within the circular smooth muscle layer are characteristic findings of gastroparesis.
Pathophysiology
Pathogenesis
- The exact pathogenesis of gastroparesis is not fully understood. However, it is well known that gastric emptying process is the result of interaction of smooth muscles, extrinsic and enteric autonomic nervous system, and interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC).[1]
- The final process for the development of delayed of gastric emptying is increased tone of pylorus.
- Gastric emptying is mediated by the vagus nerve. The process of gastric emptying involves the following sequential steps:
- Fundal accommodation
- Antral contraction
- Pyloric relaxation
- Interstitial cells of Cajal generate the contractile rhythm within the gut and possess a unique ability to produce slow waves in gastrointestinal smooth muscles.
- This electrical slow wave activity is the determinant of the characteristic frequency of phasic contractions of the stomach, intestine and colon as well as the direction and velocity of propagation of peristaltic activity, in coordination with the enteric nervous system.[2]
- Interstitial cells of Cajal regulate both gastric pacemaker activity and enteric neurons, which then initiate smooth muscle cell activity.[3] Slow wave activity in human stomach originates from a pacemaker region at the mid/upper corpus on the greater curvature. From this pacemaker region, a band of activity is formed rapidly and propagated in an organized fashion towards the distal antrum.[4] Hence, tone of pyloric sphincter plays an important role in the regulation of gastric emptying.
- Non-adrenergic, non-cholinergic (NANC) innervation to the pylorus is predominantly inhibitory and mediates relaxation of the sphincter.[5]
- A high density of nitric oxide synthase-immunopositive nerve cells and fibres have been been demonstrated in the pylorus.[6]
- They are called inhibitory nitrergic neurons. Expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) activity from nitrergic neurons in gastric wall secrete nitric oxide (NO).
- Major function of NO from these nitrergic enteric nerves include accommodation of the fundus and relaxation of pylorus through smooth muscle relaxation.
- These enteric nerves also control the muscle tone of the lower esophageal sphincter, the sphincter of Oddi, and the anus.[7] The most important mechanism behind the pathogenesis of gastroparesis appears to be:[1]
- Loss of expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS)
- Loss of interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC)
Genetics
- Recent studies suggest that the loss of antioxidant gene expression (NRF2 gene) can contribute to the development of gastroparesis. NRF2 regulates expression of phase II antioxidant genes such as HO-1, SOD1, SOD2, GCLC, GCLM, CAT, and GPX1.[8]
- Elevated expression of the enzyme heme oxygenase-1 may mitigate the development of gastroparesis.[9]
- High oxidative stress in interstitial cells of Cajal and nitrergic enteric nerves are the potential cause of injury and decrease in their numbers.[8]
Associated Conditions
The following conditions may be associated with gastroparesis:
- Diabetes
- Other motility disorders of gastrointestinal tract such as achalasia, irritable bowel syndrome and constipation.[10]
- Neurological diseases eg. Parkinson's disease
- Collagen vascular disorders
Gross Pathology
On gross pathology, no abnormalities seen on obtaining full thickness biopsy of gastric tissue.
Microscopic Pathology
On microscopic histopathological analysis of full thickness biopsy of the gastric body. Decreased number of interstitial cells of Cajal (also called fibroblast like cells) in circular muscle layer, immune cells infiltration of gastric tissue especially myenteric plexus predominantly consisting of lymphocytes and macrophages showing CD45 and CD68 immunoreactivity,[3] and enteric nerve fiber loss within the circular smooth muscle layer are characteristic findings of gastroparesis.[11]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Oh JH, Pasricha PJ (2013). "Recent advances in the pathophysiology and treatment of gastroparesis". J Neurogastroenterol Motil. 19 (1): 18–24. doi:10.5056/jnm.2013.19.1.18. PMC 3548121. PMID 23350043.
- ↑ Camborová P, Hubka P, Sulková I, Hulín I (2003). "The pacemaker activity of interstitial cells of Cajal and gastric electrical activity". Physiol Res. 52 (3): 275–84. PMID 12790758.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Parkman HP (2015). "Idiopathic gastroparesis". Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 44 (1): 59–68. doi:10.1016/j.gtc.2014.11.015. PMC 4324534. PMID 25667023.
- ↑ Cheng LK (2015). "Slow wave conduction patterns in the stomach: from Waller's foundations to current challenges". Acta Physiol (Oxf). 213 (2): 384–93. doi:10.1111/apha.12406. PMC 4405773. PMID 25313679.
- ↑ Anuras S, Cooke AR, Christensen J (1974). "An inhibitory innervation at the gastroduodenal junction". J Clin Invest. 54 (3): 529–35. doi:10.1172/JCI107789. PMC 301585. PMID 4152775.
- ↑ Ekblad E, Mulder H, Uddman R, Sundler F (1994). "NOS-containing neurons in the rat gut and coeliac ganglia". Neuropharmacology. 33 (11): 1323–31. PMID 7532815.
- ↑ Sivarao DV, Mashimo H, Goyal RK (2008). "Pyloric sphincter dysfunction in nNOS-/- and W/Wv mutant mice: animal models of gastroparesis and duodenogastric reflux". Gastroenterology. 135 (4): 1258–66. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2008.06.039. PMC 2745304. PMID 18640116.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Mukhopadhyay S, Sekhar KR, Hale AB, Channon KM, Farrugia G, Freeman ML; et al. (2011). "Loss of NRF2 impairs gastric nitrergic stimulation and function". Free Radic Biol Med. 51 (3): 619–25. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2011.04.044. PMC 3129370. PMID 21605664.
- ↑ Gibbons SJ, Grover M, Choi KM, Wadhwa A, Zubair A, Wilson LA; et al. (2017). "Repeat polymorphisms in the Homo sapiens heme oxygenase-1 gene in diabetic and idiopathic gastroparesis". PLoS One. 12 (11): e0187772. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0187772. PMC 5697813. PMID 29161307.
- ↑ Triadafilopoulos G, Nguyen L, Clarke JO (2017). "Patients with symptoms of delayed gastric emptying have a high prevalence of oesophageal dysmotility, irrespective of scintigraphic evidence of gastroparesis". BMJ Open Gastroenterol. 4 (1): e000169. doi:10.1136/bmjgast-2017-000169. PMC 5689484. PMID 29177065.
- ↑ Grover M, Bernard CE, Pasricha PJ, Lurken MS, Faussone-Pellegrini MS, Smyrk TC; et al. (2012). "Clinical-histological associations in gastroparesis: results from the Gastroparesis Clinical Research Consortium". Neurogastroenterol Motil. 24 (6): 531–9, e249. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2982.2012.01894.x. PMC 3353102. PMID 22339929.