Adenocarcinoma of the lung risk factors: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung are smoking, family history of [[lung cancer]], high levels of air pollution, [[radiation therapy]] to the chest, radon gas, [[asbestos]], occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens, and previous lung disease. | Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung are smoking, family history of [[lung cancer]], high levels of air pollution, [[radiation therapy]] to the chest, radon gas, [[asbestos]], occupational exposure to chemical [[Carcinogen|carcinogens]], and previous lung disease. | ||
==Risk Factors== | ==Risk Factors== | ||
*Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung include smoking, family history of lung cancer, [[radiation therapy]] to the chest and [[asbestos]] exposure. | *Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung include [[smoking]], [[Family history|family history of lung cancer]], [[radiation therapy]] to the chest and [[asbestos]] exposure. | ||
===Common Risk Factors=== | ===Common Risk Factors=== | ||
*Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung may be occupational, environmental, or constitutional. | *Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung may be [[Occupational safety and health|occupational]], [[Environmental lung diseases|environmental]], or constitutional. | ||
*Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung include:<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | *Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung include:<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | ||
**Smoking <ref>{{cite web | last =CDC | authorlink =Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title =1986 Surgeon General's report: the health consequences of involuntary smoking | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 1986 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000837.htm | pmid =3097495 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite book | last =National Research Council | title =Environmental tobacco smoke: measuring exposures and assessing health effects | publisher =National Academy Press | date =1986 | url =http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=943#toc | isbn =0-309-07456-8 }}<br />* {{cite paper | author =EPA | authorlink=United States Environmental Protection Agency | title =Respiratory health effects of passive smoking: lung cancer and other disorders | publisher =EPA | date =1992 | url =http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=2835 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =California Environmental Protection Agency | title =Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke | journal =Tobacco Control | volume =6 | issue =4 | pages =346–353 | date =1997 |url =http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/tobacco/caets/ets-main.htm | pmid =9583639 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =CDC | authorlink=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | title =State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000 | journal =Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume =50 | issue =49 | pages =1101–1106 | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 2001 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5049a1.htm | pmid =11794619 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Alberg | first =AJ | coauthors =Samet JM | title =Epidemiology of lung cancer | journal =Chest | volume =123 | issue =S1 | pages =21S-49S | publisher =American College of Chest Physicians | date =Jan 2003 | url =http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/123/1_suppl/21S | pmid =12527563 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Boffetta">{{cite journal | last =Boffetta | first =P | coauthors = Agudo A, Ahrens W et al. | title =Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe | journal =Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume =90 | issue =19 | pages =1440–1450 | publisher =Oxford University Press | date =Oct 1998 | url =http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/90/19/1440 | pmid =9776409 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref> | **[[Smoking]]<ref>{{cite web | last =CDC | authorlink =Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title =1986 Surgeon General's report: the health consequences of involuntary smoking | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 1986 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000837.htm | pmid =3097495 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite book | last =National Research Council | title =Environmental tobacco smoke: measuring exposures and assessing health effects | publisher =National Academy Press | date =1986 | url =http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=943#toc | isbn =0-309-07456-8 }}<br />* {{cite paper | author =EPA | authorlink=United States Environmental Protection Agency | title =Respiratory health effects of passive smoking: lung cancer and other disorders | publisher =EPA | date =1992 | url =http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=2835 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =California Environmental Protection Agency | title =Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke | journal =Tobacco Control | volume =6 | issue =4 | pages =346–353 | date =1997 |url =http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/tobacco/caets/ets-main.htm | pmid =9583639 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =CDC | authorlink=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | title =State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000 | journal =Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume =50 | issue =49 | pages =1101–1106 | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 2001 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5049a1.htm | pmid =11794619 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Alberg | first =AJ | coauthors =Samet JM | title =Epidemiology of lung cancer | journal =Chest | volume =123 | issue =S1 | pages =21S-49S | publisher =American College of Chest Physicians | date =Jan 2003 | url =http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/123/1_suppl/21S | pmid =12527563 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Boffetta">{{cite journal | last =Boffetta | first =P | coauthors = Agudo A, Ahrens W et al. | title =Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe | journal =Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume =90 | issue =19 | pages =1440–1450 | publisher =Oxford University Press | date =Oct 1998 | url =http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/90/19/1440 | pmid =9776409 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref> | ||
**Second-hand smoke<ref name="Committee">{{cite web | title =Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health | publisher =Department of Health |date =Mar 1998 | url =http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/doh/tobacco/contents.htm | accessdate =2007-07-09 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Hackshaw | first =AK | title =Lung cancer and passive smoking | journal =Statistical Methods in Medical Research | volume =7 | issue =2 | pages =119–136 | date =Jun 1998 | pmid =9654638 }}</ref><ref name="NHMRC">{{cite paper | author =National Health and Medical Research Council | title =The health effects and regulation of passive smoking |publisher =Australian Government Publishing Service | date =Apr 1994 | url =http://www.obpr.gov.au/publications/submission/healthef/index.html | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref> | **Second-hand smoke<ref name="Committee">{{cite web | title =Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health | publisher =Department of Health |date =Mar 1998 | url =http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/doh/tobacco/contents.htm | accessdate =2007-07-09 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Hackshaw | first =AK | title =Lung cancer and passive smoking | journal =Statistical Methods in Medical Research | volume =7 | issue =2 | pages =119–136 | date =Jun 1998 | pmid =9654638 }}</ref><ref name="NHMRC">{{cite paper | author =National Health and Medical Research Council | title =The health effects and regulation of passive smoking |publisher =Australian Government Publishing Service | date =Apr 1994 | url =http://www.obpr.gov.au/publications/submission/healthef/index.html | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref> | ||
** Family history of [[lung cancer]] | ** Family history of [[lung cancer]] | ||
** High levels of air pollution | ** High levels of air pollution | ||
** [[Radiation therapy]] to the chest | ** [[Radiation therapy]] to the chest | ||
** Radon gas | ** [[Radon|Radon gas]] | ||
** [[Asbestos]] | ** [[Asbestos]] | ||
** High levels of [[arsenic]] in drinking water | ** High levels of [[arsenic]] in drinking water | ||
| Line 33: | Line 33: | ||
*There is no evidence to suggest that [[smoking]] low-tar cigarettes lowers the risk. | *There is no evidence to suggest that [[smoking]] low-tar cigarettes lowers the risk. | ||
*Recently introduced e-cigarrettes, which were thought to be risk-free were recently demonstrated to be also associated with a significantly increased risk of lung cancer due to the presence of [[formaldehyde]].<ref name="pmid25607446">{{cite journal| author=Jensen RP, Luo W, Pankow JF, Strongin RM, Peyton DH| title=Hidden formaldehyde in e-cigarette aerosols. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2015 | volume= 372 | issue= 4 | pages= 392-4 | pmid=25607446 | doi=10.1056/NEJMc1413069 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25607446 }} </ref> | *Recently introduced e-cigarrettes, which were thought to be risk-free were recently demonstrated to be also associated with a significantly increased risk of lung cancer due to the presence of [[formaldehyde]].<ref name="pmid25607446">{{cite journal| author=Jensen RP, Luo W, Pankow JF, Strongin RM, Peyton DH| title=Hidden formaldehyde in e-cigarette aerosols. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2015 | volume= 372 | issue= 4 | pages= 392-4 | pmid=25607446 | doi=10.1056/NEJMc1413069 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25607446 }} </ref> | ||
*Smoking accounts for 87% of lung cancer cases in the US. The lag period between smoking and death due to lung cancer is 20 years.<ref name="Samet2">{{cite journal | last =Samet | first =JM | coauthors =Wiggins CL, Humble CG, Pathak DR | title =Cigarette smoking and lung cancer in New Mexico | journal =American Review of Respiratory Disease | volume =137 | issue =5 | pages =1110–1113 | date =May 1988 | pmid =3264122 }}</ref> | *[[Smoking]] accounts for 87% of lung cancer cases in the US. The lag period between [[smoking]] and death due to lung cancer is 20 years.<ref name="Samet2">{{cite journal | last =Samet | first =JM | coauthors =Wiggins CL, Humble CG, Pathak DR | title =Cigarette smoking and lung cancer in New Mexico | journal =American Review of Respiratory Disease | volume =137 | issue =5 | pages =1110–1113 | date =May 1988 | pmid =3264122 }}</ref> | ||
'''Second-hand smoke''' | '''Second-hand smoke''' | ||
* Second-hand smoke is exhaled by smokers. It is also known as involuntary, passive smoking or environmental tobacco smoke (ETS).<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | * Second-hand smoke is exhaled by smokers. It is also known as involuntary, [[passive smoking]] or environmental tobacco smoke (ETS).<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | ||
* Acitvely inhaled smoke and second-hand smoke contain the same chemicals. | * Acitvely inhaled smoke and second-hand smoke contain the same chemicals. | ||
| Line 57: | Line 57: | ||
'''Radon Exposure''' | '''Radon Exposure''' | ||
* Radon exposure increases the risk of lung cancer. Radon is the leading cause of lung cancer in non-smokers and the second leading cause of lung cancer in smokers. | * [[Radon|Radon exposure]] increases the risk of lung cancer. [[Radon]] is the leading cause of lung cancer in non-smokers and the second leading cause of lung cancer in smokers. | ||
* Radon comes from the natural breakdown of uranium in rocks and soil and may reach unsafe levels in enclosed, poorly ventilated homes or buildings due to seepage into the basement. | * [[Radon]] comes from the natural breakdown of [[uranium]] in rocks and soil and may reach unsafe levels in enclosed, poorly ventilated homes or buildings due to seepage into the basement. | ||
* The risk of developing lung cancer depends on degree of exposure, duration of exposure and smoking history. The risk is much higher in smokers. | * The risk of developing lung cancer depends on degree of exposure, duration of exposure and smoking history. The risk is much higher in smokers. | ||
'''Asbestos Exposure'''<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | '''Asbestos Exposure'''<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | ||
* The risk of asbestos exposure is highest for miners or those involved in manufacturing. | * The risk of [[asbestos]] exposure is highest for miners or those involved in manufacturing. | ||
* Studies have shown that the combination of smoking and [[asbestos]] exposure is extremely hazardous. | * Studies have shown that the combination of smoking and [[asbestos]] exposure is extremely hazardous. | ||
| Line 69: | Line 69: | ||
Exposure to chemical carcinogens may be particularly harmful and predispose to the development of lung adenocarcinoma. | Exposure to chemical carcinogens may be particularly harmful and predispose to the development of lung adenocarcinoma. | ||
* Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds | * [[Arsenic]] and inorganic arsenic compounds | ||
* Beryllium and beryllium compounds | * [[Beryllium]] and beryllium compounds | ||
* Cadmium and cadmium compounds | * [[Cadmium]] and cadmium compounds | ||
* Chemicals used in rubber manufacturing, iron and steel founding and painting | * Chemicals used in rubber manufacturing, iron and steel founding and painting | ||
* Chloromethyl ethers and bischloromethylether | * [[Ethers|Chloromethyl ethers and bischloromethylether]] | ||
* Chromium (VI) compounds | * [[Chromium|Chromium (VI) compounds]] | ||
* Cobalt-tungsten carbide | * Cobalt-tungsten carbide | ||
* Diesel engine exhaust | * Diesel engine exhaust | ||
* Mustard gas | * [[Mustard gas]] | ||
* Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) | * [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons|Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)]] | ||
* Radioactive ores such as uranium and plutonium | * Radioactive ores such as [[uranium]] and [[Plutonium-239|plutonium]] | ||
* Silica dust and crystalline silica | * [[Silica|Silica dust and crystalline silica]] | ||
* Some nickel compounds | * Some [[Nickel|nickel compounds]] | ||
===Less Common Risk Factors=== | ===Less Common Risk Factors=== | ||
*Less common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung include:<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | *Less common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung include:<ref>Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution </ref> | ||
**Marijuana use | **[[Marijuana|Marijuana use]] | ||
** Indoor burning of wood | ** Indoor burning of wood | ||
** High-temperature frying | ** High-temperature frying | ||
| Line 91: | Line 91: | ||
** Physical inactivity | ** Physical inactivity | ||
** Occupational exposure to certain chemicals | ** Occupational exposure to certain chemicals | ||
** Occupational exposure to vinyl chloride, dioxin, cobalt-tungsten carbide, or strong inorganic acid mists | ** Occupational exposure to [[vinyl chloride]], [[dioxin]], cobalt-tungsten carbide, or strong inorganic acid mists | ||
** Removal of both [[ovaries]] | ** Removal of both [[ovaries]] | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Latest revision as of 21:20, 2 March 2018
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Adenocarcinoma of the Lung Microchapters |
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Differentiating Adenocarcinoma of the Lung from other Diseases |
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Adenocarcinoma of the lung risk factors On the Web |
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Risk calculators and risk factors for Adenocarcinoma of the lung risk factors |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Shanshan Cen, M.D. [2]
Overview
Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung are smoking, family history of lung cancer, high levels of air pollution, radiation therapy to the chest, radon gas, asbestos, occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens, and previous lung disease.
Risk Factors
- Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung include smoking, family history of lung cancer, radiation therapy to the chest and asbestos exposure.
Common Risk Factors
- Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung may be occupational, environmental, or constitutional.
- Common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung include:[1]
- Smoking[2][3]
- Second-hand smoke[4][5]
- Family history of lung cancer
- High levels of air pollution
- Radiation therapy to the chest
- Radon gas
- Asbestos
- High levels of arsenic in drinking water
- Occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens
- Previous lung disease
- Indoor burning of coal
- Weakened immune system
- Lupus
- Pre-existing scars
- Pre-existing wounds
- Inflammation
Smoking
- Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of lung cancer.
- Both active and passive smoking are associated with increased risk of lung cancer.
- The risk of lung cancer is associated with increased quantity as well as increased duration of smoking.
- There is no evidence to suggest that smoking low-tar cigarettes lowers the risk.
- Recently introduced e-cigarrettes, which were thought to be risk-free were recently demonstrated to be also associated with a significantly increased risk of lung cancer due to the presence of formaldehyde.[6]
- Smoking accounts for 87% of lung cancer cases in the US. The lag period between smoking and death due to lung cancer is 20 years.[7]
Second-hand smoke
- Second-hand smoke is exhaled by smokers. It is also known as involuntary, passive smoking or environmental tobacco smoke (ETS).[8]
- Acitvely inhaled smoke and second-hand smoke contain the same chemicals.
- Exposure to second-hand smoke increases risk of developing lung cancer.
- Second-hand smoke is a major risk factor for lung cancer among non-smokers.
- Even small amounts of exposure to second hand smoke is considered unsafe.[9]
Air Pollution
- Emissions from automobiles, factories and power plants may increase predisposition of individuals to lung cancer.[10]
- Individual components of air pollution which include diesel engine exhaust, particulate matter, benzene, and some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are considered particularly harmful in individuals.[11]
Family History of Lung Cancer
- Family history of lung cancer may increase the risk of developing lung cancer in individuals.[12]
- First-degree relatives of lung cancer patients are always considered high-risk.
Radiation Therapy to the Chest
- DNA mutations and cellular damage due to radiation therapy may increase individual predisposition to lung cancer.
- Previous exposure to ionizing radiation may increase individual risk of developing lung cancer.
- Radiation therapy for Hodgkin lymphoma or breast cancer is associated with development of lung cancer.
Radon Exposure
- Radon exposure increases the risk of lung cancer. Radon is the leading cause of lung cancer in non-smokers and the second leading cause of lung cancer in smokers.
- Radon comes from the natural breakdown of uranium in rocks and soil and may reach unsafe levels in enclosed, poorly ventilated homes or buildings due to seepage into the basement.
- The risk of developing lung cancer depends on degree of exposure, duration of exposure and smoking history. The risk is much higher in smokers.
Asbestos Exposure[13]
- The risk of asbestos exposure is highest for miners or those involved in manufacturing.
- Studies have shown that the combination of smoking and asbestos exposure is extremely hazardous.
Exposure to Other Chemical Carcinogens[14]
Exposure to chemical carcinogens may be particularly harmful and predispose to the development of lung adenocarcinoma.
- Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds
- Beryllium and beryllium compounds
- Cadmium and cadmium compounds
- Chemicals used in rubber manufacturing, iron and steel founding and painting
- Chloromethyl ethers and bischloromethylether
- Chromium (VI) compounds
- Cobalt-tungsten carbide
- Diesel engine exhaust
- Mustard gas
- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
- Radioactive ores such as uranium and plutonium
- Silica dust and crystalline silica
- Some nickel compounds
Less Common Risk Factors
- Less common risk factors in the development of adenocarcinoma of the lung include:[15]
- Marijuana use
- Indoor burning of wood
- High-temperature frying
- Meat diet
- Physical inactivity
- Occupational exposure to certain chemicals
- Occupational exposure to vinyl chloride, dioxin, cobalt-tungsten carbide, or strong inorganic acid mists
- Removal of both ovaries
References
- ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ CDC (Dec 1986). "1986 Surgeon General's report: the health consequences of involuntary smoking". CDC. PMID 3097495. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
* National Research Council (1986). Environmental tobacco smoke: measuring exposures and assessing health effects. National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-07456-8.
* Template:Cite paper
* California Environmental Protection Agency (1997). "Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke". Tobacco Control. 6 (4): 346–353. PMID 9583639. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
* CDC (Dec 2001). "State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. CDC. 50 (49): 1101–1106. PMID 11794619. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
* Alberg, AJ (Jan 2003). "Epidemiology of lung cancer". Chest. American College of Chest Physicians. 123 (S1): 21S–49S. PMID 12527563. Retrieved 2007-08-10. Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Boffetta, P (Oct 1998). "Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Oxford University Press. 90 (19): 1440–1450. PMID 9776409. Retrieved 2007-08-10. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ "Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health". Department of Health. Mar 1998. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
* Hackshaw, AK (Jun 1998). "Lung cancer and passive smoking". Statistical Methods in Medical Research. 7 (2): 119–136. PMID 9654638. - ↑ Template:Cite paper
- ↑ Jensen RP, Luo W, Pankow JF, Strongin RM, Peyton DH (2015). "Hidden formaldehyde in e-cigarette aerosols". N Engl J Med. 372 (4): 392–4. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1413069. PMID 25607446.
- ↑ Samet, JM (May 1988). "Cigarette smoking and lung cancer in New Mexico". American Review of Respiratory Disease. 137 (5): 1110–1113. PMID 3264122. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ Parent, ME (Jan 2007). "Exposure to diesel and gasoline engine emissions and the risk of lung cancer". American Journal of Epidemiology. 165 (1): 53–62. PMID 17062632. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution
- ↑ Lung cancer. Canadian Cancer Society 2015. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/lung/risks/?region=ab#Outdoor_air_pollution