Respiratory failure causes: Difference between revisions

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{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{MKA}}  
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{MKA}}  
==Overview==
==Overview==
Common causes of respiratory failure include [[pneumonia]], [[pulmonary edema]], [[pulmonary embolism]], [[acute respiratory distress syndrome]], [[atelectasis]], [[asthma]], [[COPD]], [[neuromuscular]] and [[chest wall]] disorders, inadequate post-operative [[analgesia]], [[smoking]], [[obesity]] and [[shock]].  
Common causes of respiratory failure include [[pneumonia]], [[pulmonary edema]], [[pulmonary embolism]], [[acute respiratory distress syndrome]], [[atelectasis]], [[asthma]], [[COPD]], [[neuromuscular]] and [[chest wall]] disorders, inadequate post-operative [[analgesia]], [[smoking]], [[obesity]] and [[shock]]. Life-threatening causes of respiratory failure include [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], acute on chronic respiratory failure, [[pulmonary]] infection, [[pulmonary embolism]], [[heart failure]], [[cardiac arrhythmia]] and [[lung cancer]].
 
==Causes==
==Causes==
===Life-threatening Causes===
===Life-threatening causes===
*Life-threatening causes of respiratory failure include [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], acute on chronic respiratory failure, [[pulmonary]] infection, [[pulmonary embolism]], [[heart failure]], [[cardiac arrhythmia]] and [[lung cancer]].<ref name="pmid9151520">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zielinski J, MacNee W, Wedzicha J, Ambrosino N, Braghiroli A, Dolensky J, Howard P, Gorzelak K, Lahdensuo A, Strom K, Tobiasz M, Weitzenblum E |title=Causes of death in patients with COPD and chronic respiratory failure |journal=Monaldi Arch Chest Dis |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=43–7 |date=February 1997 |pmid=9151520 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Life-threatening causes of respiratory failure include [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], acute on chronic respiratory failure, [[pulmonary]] infection, [[pulmonary embolism]], [[heart failure]], [[cardiac arrhythmia]] and [[lung cancer]].<ref name="pmid9151520">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zielinski J, MacNee W, Wedzicha J, Ambrosino N, Braghiroli A, Dolensky J, Howard P, Gorzelak K, Lahdensuo A, Strom K, Tobiasz M, Weitzenblum E |title=Causes of death in patients with COPD and chronic respiratory failure |journal=Monaldi Arch Chest Dis |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=43–7 |date=February 1997 |pmid=9151520 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


Causes of respiratory failure include:<ref name="Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institutes of Health; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.urlRespiratory Failure | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)">{{cite web |url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/respiratory-failure |title=Respiratory Failure &#124; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
===Causes of respiratory failure based on classification of disease===
Causes of respiratory failure based on classification of disease include:<ref name="Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National Institutes of Health; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.urlRespiratory Failure | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)">{{cite web |url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/respiratory-failure |title=Respiratory Failure &#124; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>


*Type I respiratory failure:
*'''Type I respiratory failure:'''
**[[Pneumonia]]
**[[Pneumonia]]
**[[Cardiogenic pulmonary edema]]
**[[Cardiogenic pulmonary edema]]
Line 23: Line 25:
**[[Pulmonary fibrosis]]
**[[Pulmonary fibrosis]]


*Type II respiratory failure:
*'''Type II respiratory failure:'''
**Central [[hypoventilation]]
**Central [[hypoventilation]]
**[[Asthma]]
**[[Asthma]]
Line 35: Line 37:
**[[Obesity hypoventilation syndrome]]
**[[Obesity hypoventilation syndrome]]


*Type III respiratory failure:
*'''Type III respiratory failure:'''
**Inadequate post-operative [[analgesia]]
**Inadequate post-operative [[analgesia]]
***Upper [[abdominal]] [[incision]]
***Upper [[abdominal]] [[incision]]
Line 43: Line 45:
**Excessive airway secretions
**Excessive airway secretions


*Type IV respiratory failure:
*'''Type IV respiratory failure:'''
**[[Cardiogenic shock]]
**[[Cardiogenic shock]]
**[[Septic shock]]
**[[Septic shock]]
Line 305: Line 307:


===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
*[[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]
{{columns-list|
*acute on chronic respiratory failure  
*[[3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate]]
*[[pulmonary]] infection
*Acute lung syndrome
*[[pulmonary embolism]]
*Acute on chronic respiratory failure  
*[[heart failure]]
*[[Abrin]]
*[[cardiac arrhythmia]]
*[[Acetylsalicylic acid]]
*[[lung cancer]]
*[[Achondrogenesis]]
*[[Pneumonia]]
*[[Cardiogenic pulmonary edema]]
*Non-cardiogenic [[pulmonary edema]]
*[[Acute lung injury]]
*[[Acute lung injury]]
*[[Acute motor axonal neuropathy]]
*[[Acute Porphyria]]
*[[Acute respiratory distress syndrome|Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)]]
*[[Acute respiratory distress syndrome|Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)]]
*[[Pulmonary embolism]]
*[[Alcohol]]
*[[Aldicarb]]
*[[Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency]]
*[[Alpha-amanitin]]
*[[Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis]]
*[[Anaphylaxis]]
*[[Angioedema]]
*[[Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome]]
*[[Asbestosis]]
*[[Ascites]]
*[[Aspiration]]
*[[Asthma]]
*[[Atelectasis]]
*[[Atelectasis]]
*[[Pulmonary fibrosis]]
*[[Atelosteogenesis, type II]]
*Central [[hypoventilation]]
*[[Atrial septal defect (ostium primum)]]
*[[Asthma]]
*[[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]
*[[Myopathies]]
*[[Neuropathies]]
*[[Kyphoscoliosis]]
*[[Myasthenia gravis]]
*Inadequate post-operative [[analgesia]]
*Upper [[abdominal]] [[incision]]
*[[Obesity]]
*[[Ascites]]
*Pre-operative [[tobacco smoking]]
*Excessive airway secretions
*[[Cardiogenic shock]]
*[[Septic shock]]
*[[Hypovolemic shock]]
*[[Azacitidine]]
*[[Azacitidine]]
*[[Codeine]]
*[[Babesiosis]]
*[[Clozapine]]
*[[Fentanyl]]
*[[Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid]]
*[[Heroin]]
*[[Ketamine]]
*[[Lidocaine]]
*[[Labetalol]]
*[[Lorazepam]]
*[[Morphine]]
*[[Nitrazepam]]
*[[Opiate]]
*[[Oxymorphone]]
*[[Procainamide (patient information)]]
*[[Sodium thiopental]]
*[[Triazolam]]
*[[Zopiclone]]
*[[Atrial septal defect (ostium primum)]]
*[[Ebstein anomaly]]
*[[Eisenmenger syndrome]]
*[[Fallot tetralogy]]
*[[Pulmonary valve stenosis]]
*[[Transposition of great arteries]]
*[[Tricuspid valve stenosis]]
*[[Ventricular septal defect]]
*[[Heart failure]]
*[[Cardiac arrhythmia]]
*[[Shock]]
*[[3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate]]
*[[Abrin]]
*[[Aldicarb]]
*[[Alpha-amanitin]]
*[[Barium nitrate]]
*[[Barium nitrate]]
*[[Becker's muscular dystrophy]]
*[[Bland-White-Garland Syndrome]]
*[[Blood transfusion]]
*[[Botulism]]
*[[Bronchial asthma]]
*[[Bronchiectasis]]
*[[Bronchiolitis obliterans]]
*[[Bronchiolitis]]
*[[Bronchogenic carcinoma]]
*[[Bronchopulmonary dysplasia]]
*[[Bufotenin]]
*[[Bungarotoxin]]
*[[Bungarotoxin]]
*Central [[hypoventilation]]
*Coal worker pneumoconiosis
*[[Carbon monoxide poisoning]]
*[[Carbon monoxide poisoning]]
*[[Cardiac arrhythmia]]
*[[Cardiogenic pulmonary edema]]
*[[Cardiogenic shock]]
*[[Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II deficiency]]
*[[Ceritinib]]
*[[Ceritinib]]
*[[Cholesterol Emboli Syndrome]]
*[[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]
*[[Clitocybe dealbata]]
*[[Clozapine]]
*[[Cocaine]]
*[[Cocaine]]
*[[Codeine]]
*[[Colchicine]]
*[[Cone snail]]
*[[Cone snail]]
*[[Furfural]]
*[[Snakebites]]
*[[Atrial septal defect (ostium primum)]]
*[[Bland-White-Garland Syndrome]]
*[[Congenital Central Hypoventilation Syndrome]]
*[[Congenital Central Hypoventilation Syndrome]]
*[[Congenital diaphragmatic hernia]]
*[[Congenital diaphragmatic hernia]]
*[[Fallot tetralogy]]
*[[Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever]]
*[[Fetal circulation, persistent]]
*[[Respiratory distress syndrome (neonatal)]]
*[[Codeine]]
*[[Clozapine]]
*[[Crizotinib]]
*[[Crizotinib]]
*[[Cyclophosphamide]]
*[[Cyclophosphamide]]
*[[Cystic adenomatoid malformation of lung]]
*[[Cystic fibrosis]]
*[[Cytisine]]
*[[Desmopressin]]
*[[Desmopressin]]
*[[Devic's disease]]
*[[Dicofol]]
*[[Dornase Alfa]]
*[[Dornase Alfa]]
*[[Duchenne's Muscular Dystrophy]]
*Excessive airway secretions
*[[Ebstein anomaly]]
*[[Eisenmenger syndrome]]
*[[Emphysema]]
*[[Eosinophilic pneumonia]]
*[[EVAR]]
*[[Fallot tetralogy]]
*[[Familial dysautonomia]]
*[[Fat embolism]]
*[[Fentanyl]]
*[[Fentanyl]]
*[[Fetal circulation, persistent]]
*[[Fibrosing alveolitis]]
*[[Flail chest]]
*[[Foreign body]]
*[[Furfural]]
*[[galsulfase]]
*[[Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid]]
*[[Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid]]
*[[galsulfase]]
*[[Guillain-Barre syndrome]]
*[[Hamman-Rich Syndrome]]
*[[Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome]]
*[[Heart failure]]
*[[Heartworm]]
*[[Hepatic failure]]
*[[Hepatopulmonary syndrome]]
*[[Hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia]]
*[[Heroin]]
*[[Heroin]]
*[[Hypovolemic shock]]
*Inadequate post-operative [[analgesia]]
*[[Idursulfase]]
*[[Idursulfase]]
*[[interferon alfacon-1]]
*[[interferon alfacon-1]]
*[[Interstitial fibrosis]]
*[[Ixabepilone]]
*[[Ixabepilone]]
*[[Ketamine]]
*[[Ketamine]]
*[[Kyphoscoliosis]]
*[[Labetalol]]
*[[Laryngo-/Bronchospasm]]
*[[Legionella pneumophila]]
*[[Lidocaine]]
*[[Lidocaine]]
*[[Labetalol]]
*[[Lorazepam]]
*[[Lorazepam]]
*[[Lung cancer]]
*[[Malignant hyperpyrexia]]
*[[Malignant Mesothelioma]]
*[[Meningitis]]
*[[Metabolic Acidosis]]
*[[Morphine]]
*[[Morphine]]
*[[Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome]]
*[[Myasthenia Gravis]]
*[[Myopathies]]
*Near-drowning
*Non-cardiogenic [[pulmonary edema]]
*[[Neuropathies]]
*[[Nitrazepam]]
*[[Nitrazepam]]
*[[Obesity]]
*[[Opiate]]
*[[Opiate]]
*[[Osteogenesis imperfecta]]
*[[Oxymorphone]]
*[[Oxymorphone]]
*[[Pegylated interferon alfa-2b]]
*[[Pegylated interferon alfa-2b]]
*[[Pramipexole]]
*[[Procainamide]]
*[[Rasburicase]]
*[[Sodium thiopental]]
*[[Tretinoin]]
*[[Triazolam]]
*[[Vincristine *sulfate liposome]]
*[[Zopiclone]]
*[[Asbestosis]]
*Coal worker pneumoconiosis
*[[Smoke inhalation]]
*Sulfur dioxide
*[[Hepatic failure]]
*[[Hepatopulmonary syndrome]]
*[[Achondrogenesis]]
*[[Acute Porphyria]]
*[[Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency]]
*[[Atelosteogenesis, type II]]
*[[Becker's muscular dystrophy]]
*[[Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II deficiency]]
*[[Cystic fibrosis]]
*[[Duchenne's Muscular Dystrophy]]
*[[Familial dysautonomia]]
*[[Hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia]]
*[[Osteogenesis imperfecta]]
*[[Thanatophoric dysplasia]]
*[[Acute Porphyria]]
*[[Cholesterol Emboli Syndrome]]
*[[Fat embolism]]
*[[Sepsis]]
*[[Blood transfusion]]
*[[EVAR]]
*[[Babesiosis]]
*[[Botulism]]
*[[Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever]]
*[[Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome]]
*[[Heartworm]]
*[[Post-polio syndrome]]
*[[Rabies]]
*[[Tetanus]]
*[[Kyphoscoliosis]]
*[[Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis]]
*[[Meningitis]]
*[[Polyrediculitis]]
*[[Zellweger syndrome]]
*[[Metabolic Acidosis]]
*[[Malignant Mesothelioma]]
*[[Acetylsalicylic acid]]
*[[Alcohol]]
*[[Bufotenin]]
*[[Clitocybe dealbata]]
*[[Colchicine]]
*[[Cytisine]]
*[[Dicofol]]
*[[Saxitoxin]]
*[[Tetrodotoxin]]
*[[Tick paralysis]]
*[[Vinyl chloride]]
*Acute lung syndrome
*[[Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome]]
*[[Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency]]
*[[Atelectasis]]
*[[Bronchial asthma]]
*[[Bronchiectasis]]
*[[Bronchiolitis]]
*[[Bronchiolitis obliterans]]
*[[Bronchogenic carcinoma]]
*[[Bronchopulmonary dysplasia]]
*[[Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease]]
*[[Cystic adenomatoid malformation of lung]]
*[[Emphysema]]
*[[Eosinophilic pneumonia]]
*[[Fibrosing alveolitis]]
*[[Flail chest]]
*[[Interstitial fibrosis]]
*[[Laryngo-/Bronchospasm]]
*[[Legionella pneumophila]]
*[[Pleural effusion]]
*[[Pleural effusion]]
*[[Pneumonia]]
*[[Pneumonia]]
*[[Pneumothorax]]
*[[Pneumothorax]]
*[[Polyrediculitis]]
*[[Post-polio syndrome]]
*[[Pramipexole]]
*[[Procainamide]]
*[[Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis]]
*[[Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis]]
*[[Pulmonary arterio-venous malformation]]
*[[Pulmonary arterio-venous malformation]]
*[[Pulmonary edema]]
*[[Pulmonary edema]]
*[[Pulmonary embolism]]
*[[Pulmonary embolism]]
*[[Pulmonary fibrosis]]
*[[Pulmonary hypertension]]
*[[Pulmonary hypertension]]
*[[Pulmonary oedema]]
*[[Pulmonary edema]]
*[[Pulmonary valve stenosis]]
*[[Pulmonary]] infection
*Pre-operative [[tobacco smoking]]
*[[Rabies]]
*[[Rasburicase]]
*[[Respiratory distress syndrome (neonatal)]]
*[[Restrictive Lung Disease]]
*[[Restrictive Lung Disease]]
*[[Status asthmaticus]], [[Lung cancer]]
*[[Reye's syndrome]]
*[[Acute motor axonal neuropathy]]
*Sulfur dioxide
*[[Anaphylaxis]]
*[[Angioedema]]
*[[Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome]]
*[[Devic's disease]]
*[[Guillain-Barre syndrome]]
*[[Hamman-Rich Syndrome]]
*[[Myasthenia Gravis]]
*[[Satoyoshi syndrome]]
*[[Satoyoshi syndrome]]
*[[Ebstein anomaly]]
*[[Saxitoxin]]
*[[Flail chest]]
*[[Sepsis]]
*[[Aspiration]]
*[[Septic shock]]
*[[Foreign body]]
*[[Shock]]  
*[[Malignant hyperpyrexia]]
*[[Smoke inhalation]]
*[[Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome]]
*[[Snakebites]]
*Near-drowning
*[[Sodium thiopental]]
*[[Reye's syndrome]]
*[[Status asthmaticus]]
*[[Tetanus]]
*[[Tetrodotoxin]]
*[[Thanatophoric dysplasia]]
*[[Tick paralysis]]
*[[Transposition of great arteries]]
*[[Tretinoin]]
*[[Triazolam]]
*[[Tricuspid valve stenosis]]
*Upper [[abdominal]] [[incision]]
*[[Ventricular septal defect]]
*[[Vincristine *sulfate liposome]]
*[[Vinyl chloride]]
*[[Zellweger syndrome]]
*[[Zopiclone]]
}}


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}
{{WH}}
{{WS}}


[[Category:Surgery]]
[[Category:Up-To-Date]]
[[Category:Medicine]]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:Pulmonology]]
[[Category:Pulmonology]]
 
[[Category:Anesthesiology]]
{{WH}}
{{WS}}

Latest revision as of 23:57, 29 July 2020

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: M. Khurram Afzal, MD [2]

Overview

Common causes of respiratory failure include pneumonia, pulmonary edema, pulmonary embolism, acute respiratory distress syndrome, atelectasis, asthma, COPD, neuromuscular and chest wall disorders, inadequate post-operative analgesia, smoking, obesity and shock. Life-threatening causes of respiratory failure include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, acute on chronic respiratory failure, pulmonary infection, pulmonary embolism, heart failure, cardiac arrhythmia and lung cancer.

Causes

Life-threatening causes

Causes of respiratory failure based on classification of disease

Causes of respiratory failure based on classification of disease include:[2]

Drugs that can cause respiratory failure

Common drugs that can cause respiratory failure include:[4][5]

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular

Atrial septal defect (ostium primum), Ebstein anomaly, Eisenmenger syndrome, Fallot tetralogy, Pulmonary valve stenosis, Transposition of great arteries, Tricuspid valve stenosis, Ventricular septal defect, Heart failure, Cardiac arrhythmia, Shock

Chemical / poisoning 3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate,

Abrin, Aldicarb, Alpha-amanitin, Barium nitrate, Bungarotoxin, Carbon monoxide poisoning, Ceritinib Cocaine, Cone snail, Furfural, Snakebites (Patient information)

Congenital

Atrial septal defect (ostium primum), Bland-White-Garland Syndrome, Congenital Central Hypoventilation Syndrome, Congenital diaphragmatic hernia, Fallot tetralogy, Fetal circulation, persistent, Respiratory distress syndrome (neonatal)

Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect Codeine, Clozapine, Crizotinib, Cyclophosphamide, Desmopressin, Dornase Alfa, Fentanyl, Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid, galsulfase, Heroin, Idursulfase, interferon alfacon-1, Ixabepilone, Ketamine, Lidocaine, Labetalol, Lorazepam, Morphine, Nitrazepam, Opiate, Oxymorphone, Pegylated interferon alfa-2b, Pramipexole, Procainamide (patient information), Rasburicase, Sodium thiopental, Tretinoin, Triazolam, Vincristine sulfate liposome, Zopiclone
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine No underlying causes
Environmental

Asbestosis, Coal worker pneumoconiosis, Smoke inhalation, Sulfur dioxide

Gastroenterologic

Hepatic failure, Hepatopulmonary syndrome

Genetic

Achondrogenesis, Acute Porphyria, Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency, Atelosteogenesis, type II, Becker's muscular dystrophy, Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II deficiency, Cystic fibrosis, Duchenne's Muscular Dystrophy, Familial dysautonomia, Hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia, Osteogenesis imperfecta, Thanatophoric dysplasia

Hematologic

Acute Porphyria, Cholesterol Emboli Syndrome, Fat embolism, Sepsis

Iatrogenic

Blood transfusion, EVAR

Infectious Disease

Babesiosis, Botulism, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome, Heartworm, Post-polio syndrome, Rabies, Tetanus

Musculoskeletal / Ortho

Kyphoscoliosis

Neurologic

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Meningitis, Polyrediculitis, Zellweger syndrome

Nutritional / Metabolic

Metabolic Acidosis

Obstetric/Gynecologic No underlying causes
Oncologic

Malignant Mesothelioma

Ophthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose / Toxicity

Acetylsalicylic acid, Alcohol, Bufotenin, Clitocybe dealbata, Colchicine, Cytisine, Dicofol, Saxitoxin, Tetrodotoxin, Tick paralysis, Vinyl chloride

Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary

Acute lung syndrome, Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency, Atelectasis, Bronchial asthma, Bronchiectasis, Bronchiolitis, Bronchiolitis obliterans, Bronchogenic carcinoma, Bronchopulmonary dysplasia, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Cystic adenomatoid malformation of lung, Emphysema, Eosinophilic pneumonia, Fibrosing alveolitis, Flail chest, Interstitial fibrosis, Laryngo-/Bronchospasm, Legionella pneumophila, Pleural effusion, Pneumonia, Pneumothorax, Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, Pulmonary arterio-venous malformation, Pulmonary edema, Pulmonary embolism, Pulmonary hypertension, Pulmonary oedema, Restrictive Lung Disease, Status asthmaticus, Lung cancer

Renal / Electrolyte

Electrolyte abnormalities

Rheum / Immune / Allergy

Acute motor axonal neuropathy, Anaphylaxis, Angioedema, Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome, Devic's disease, Guillain-Barre syndrome, Hamman-Rich Syndrome, Myasthenia Gravis, Satoyoshi syndrome

Trauma

Ebstein anomaly, Flail chest

Urologic No underlying causes
Miscellaneous

Aspiration, Foreign body, Malignant hyperpyrexia, Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, Near-drowning, Reye's syndrome

Causes in Alphabetical Order

References

  1. ↑ Zielinski J, MacNee W, Wedzicha J, Ambrosino N, Braghiroli A, Dolensky J, Howard P, Gorzelak K, Lahdensuo A, Strom K, Tobiasz M, Weitzenblum E (February 1997). "Causes of death in patients with COPD and chronic respiratory failure". Monaldi Arch Chest Dis. 52 (1): 43–7. PMID 9151520.
  2. ↑ "Respiratory Failure | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)".
  3. ↑ Roy TM, Walker JF, Farrow JR (April 1991). "Respiratory failure associated with myasthenia gravis". J Ky Med Assoc. 89 (4): 169–73. PMID 2040830.
  4. ↑ Caruso AL, Bouillon TW, Schumacher PM, Luginbuhl M, Morari M (2007). "Drug-induced respiratory depression: an integrated model of drug effects on the hypercapnic and hypoxic drive". Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2007: 4259–63. doi:10.1109/IEMBS.2007.4353277. PMID 18002943.
  5. ↑ Wilson KC, Saukkonen JJ (2004). "Acute respiratory failure from abused substances". J Intensive Care Med. 19 (4): 183–93. doi:10.1177/0885066604263918. PMID 15296619.

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