COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome: Difference between revisions

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__NOTOC__
__NOTOC__
{{COVID-19}}
{{SI}}
'''For COVID-19 main page, click [[COVID-19|here]]'''


'''For COVID-19 frequently asked inpatient questions, click [[COVID-19 frequently asked inpatient questions|here]]'''
'''For COVID-19 frequently asked inpatient questions, click [[COVID-19 frequently asked inpatient questions|here]]'''
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'''For COVID-19 frequently asked outpatient questions, click [[COVID-19 frequently asked outpatient questions|here]]'''
'''For COVID-19 frequently asked outpatient questions, click [[COVID-19 frequently asked outpatient questions|here]]'''


{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{HAR}}  
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{HAR}} {{Jose}} {{Sahar}} {{Aisha}}


{{SK}} '''Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)'''
{{SK}} '''Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)'''


==Overview==
==Overview==
[[COVID-19]]-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome (also known as PIMS-TS - pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally with SARS-CoV2 infection or MIS-C - multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children) is an uncommon clinical entity caused by SARS-CoV2 and seen mostly on children. It presents with: [[fever]] > 3 days and elevated markers of [[inflammation]] and 2 of the following 5 criteria: [[rash]] or [[conjunctivitis]]; [[hypotension]] or [[shock]]; [[myocardial]] dysfunction, [[pericarditis]], [[valvulitis]] or [[coronary]] abnormalities; evidence of [[COVID-19 Hematologic Complications|coagulopathy]] and/or acute [[gastrointestinal]] problems along with evidence of [[COVID-19]]. It seems to be a severe form of [[COVID-19]] in children presenting with symptoms that can be challenging to differentiate from other pediatric infectious diseases such as [[toxic shock syndrome]] and [[Kawasaki disease]]. The [[pathophysiology]] of this form of SARS-CoV2 infection remains unknown.
[[COVID-19]]-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome (also known as PIMS-TS - pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally with [[SARS-CoV2]] infection or MIS-C - multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children) is an uncommon clinical entity caused by [[SARS-CoV2]] and seen mostly on children. It presents with: [[fever]] > 3 days and elevated markers of [[inflammation]] and 2 of the following 5 criteria: [[rash]] or [[conjunctivitis]]; [[hypotension]] or [[shock]]; [[myocardial]] dysfunction, [[pericarditis]], [[valvulitis]] or [[coronary]] abnormalities; evidence of [[COVID-19 Hematologic Complications|coagulopathy]] and/or acute [[gastrointestinal]] problems along with evidence of [[COVID-19]]. It seems to be a severe form of [[COVID-19]] in children presenting with symptoms that can be challenging to differentiate from other pediatric infectious diseases such as [[toxic shock syndrome]] and [[Kawasaki disease]]. The [[pathophysiology]] of this form of SARS-CoV2 infection remains unknown.
==Historical Perspective==
==Historical Perspective==


* Reports of a new febrile pediatric entity began to appear in late April 2020 during the [[COVID-19]] pandemic in the Western Europe, characterized by systemic hyperinflammation, [[Abdominal pain|abdominal pai]]<nowiki/>n with [[gastrointestinal]] symptoms and [[Multiorgan failure|multiorgan]] involvement affecting especially the [[myocardium]] causing [[cardiogenic shock]] which reminded the physicians of [[Kawasaki disease]];<ref name=":0">Shulman, Stanford T. "Pediatric coronavirus disease-2019–associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome." ''Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society'' (2020).</ref>
*<nowiki/> [[COVID-19]]-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome was first reported as a new [[febrile]] pediatric entity, which began to appear in late April 2020 during the [[COVID-19]] pandemic in Wes<nowiki/>tern Europe.<ref name="pmid32441751">{{cite journal| author=Shulman ST| title=Pediatric Coronavirus Disease-2019-Associated Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome. | journal=J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue= 3 | pages= 285-286 | pmid=32441751 | doi=10.1093/jpids/piaa062 | pmc=7313948 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32441751  }} </ref>
* Cases of children with such symptoms were quickly identified in the New York City area, which was then the most heavily affected city in the U.S. by the [[COVID-19]] pandemic;<ref name=":0" />
*Cases of children with such symptoms were quickly identified in the New York City area, which was at that time the most heavily affected city in the U.S. by the [[COVID-19]] pandemic;<ref name="pmid32441751" />
* A report of 8 cases from Evelina London Children's Hospital was published on 6 May 2020, showing very prominent markers of [[inflammation]] such as [[ferritin]], [[D-dimers]], [[triglycerides]], elevated [[cardiac enzymes]], high [[NT-pro-BNP]] levels and [[troponin]], being empirically treated with [[IVIG]];<ref name=":0" />
* A repor<nowiki/><nowiki/>t of 8 cases from Evelina London Children's Hospital was published on 6 May 2020, showing very prominent markers of [[inflammation]] such as [[ferritin]], [[D-dimers]], [[triglycerides]], eleva<nowiki/>ted [[cardiac enzymes]], high [[NT-pro-BNP]] levels and [[troponin]], being empirically treated with [[IVIG]];<ref name="pmid32441751" />
* In 22 May, an article from the Journal of Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society addressed some of the similarities and differences of this new entity with [[Kawasaki's disease]], noting that the demographics affected was significantly different, as it was not seen in Asia despite the pandemic also affecting such countries, but it was affecting mostly children of African ethnicity. The author also differentiated some of the laboratory findings, resembling the [[macrophage activation syndrome]] and not [[Kawasaki's disease]].<ref name=":0" />
* On May 22, an article from the Journal of [[Pediatric]] Infectious Diseases Society addressed some of the similarities and differences of this new entity with [[Kawasaki's disease]], noting th<nowiki/>at the demographics affected were significantly different, as it was not seen in Asia despite the pandemic also affecting such countries, but it was affecting mostly children of African ethnicity. The author also differentiated some of the laboratory findings, resembling the [[macrophage activation syndrome]] and not [[Kawasaki's disease]].<ref name="pmid32441751" />


==Classification of Disease Severity of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome ==
==Classification of Disease Severity of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome ==


* There is no established system for the classification of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome.
* There is no established system for the [[classification]] of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome.


==Pathophysiology==
==Pathophysiology==


* The exact pathophysiological mechanism of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is unclear.  
* The exact pathophysiological mechanism of [[COVID-19]]-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is unclear;
*Since there is a lag time between COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome appearance and [[COVID-19]] infection ([[median]] time: 25 days)<ref name=":2">Feldstein, Leora R., et al. "Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in US children and adolescents." ''New England Journal of Medicine'' (2020).</ref> it is suspected to be a post-infectious phenomenon related to [[IgG]] antibody-mediated enhancement of disease. There are two arguments that support this theory: the presence of [[IgG]] [[antibodies]] against SARS-CoV2 and the presence of the lag time between [[COVID-19]] symptoms and COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome.<ref name=":3">Rowley, Anne H. "Understanding SARS-CoV-2-related multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children." ''Nature Reviews Immunology'' (2020): 1-2.</ref>  
*It is thought that [[COVID-19]]-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is caused by either [[IgG]] [[antibody]]-mediated enhancement of the disease, an [[acute]] [[viral]] presentation, or due to [[cytokine storm]].<ref name="pmid32546853">{{cite journal| author=Rowley AH| title=Understanding SARS-CoV-2-related multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children. | journal=Nat Rev Immunol | year= 2020 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=32546853 | doi=10.1038/s41577-020-0367-5 | pmc=7296515 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32546853  }} </ref>
*There is, however, another theory that states that it is still an [[acute]] [[viral]] presentation of the disease due to the fact that children presenting with such symptoms undergone exploratory [[laparotomy]] which found [[mesenteric adenitis]], supporting GI infection. SARS-CoV2 is also known to easily infect [[enterocytes]]. Another interesting point to consider is that the worsening of illness has not been seen in patients with [[COVID-19]] who are treated with convalescent plasma, which could have occurred if it was an antibody-mediated enhancement.<ref name=":3" />
*Since there is a lag time between [[COVID-19]]-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome appearance and [[COVID-19]] infection ([[median]] time: 25 days)<ref name="pmid32598831">{{cite journal| author=Feldstein LR, Rose EB, Horwitz SM, Collins JP, Newhams MM, Son MBF | display-authors=etal| title=Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in U.S. Children and Adolescents. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2020 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=32598831 | doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2021680 | pmc=7346765 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32598831  }} </ref> it is suspected to be a post-infectious phenomenon related to [[IgG]] antibody-mediated enhancement of disease. There are two arguments that support this theory: the presence of [[IgG]] [[antibodies]] against SARS-CoV2 and the presence of the lag time between [[COVID-19]] symptoms and COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome.<ref name="pmid32546853" />
*There is another hypothesis for the [[cytokine storm]] seen on children with COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is originated from the known ability of [[coronaviruses]] to block type I and type III [[interferon]] responses, delaying the [[cytokine storm]] in patients that could not control the [[viral replication]] on earlier phases of the disease.<ref name=":3" />
*There is, however, another theory that states that it is still an [[acute]] [[viral]] presentation of the [[disease]] due to the fact that children presenting with such symptoms undergone exploratory [[laparotomy]] which found [[mesenteric adenitis]], supporting GI infection. [[SARS-CoV2]] is also known to easily infect [[enterocytes]]. Another interesting point to consider is that the worsening of illness has not been observed in [[patients]] with [[COVID-19]] who are treated with convalescent plasma, which could have occurred if it was an antibody-mediated enhancement.<ref name="pmid32546853" />
*There is another hypothesis for the [[cytokine storm]] seen on children with COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is originated from the known ability of [[coronaviruses]] to block type I and type III [[interferon]] responses, delaying the [[cytokine storm]] in [[patients]] that could not control the [[viral replication]] on earlier phases of the disease.<ref name="pmid32546853" />


==Differentiating Any Disease from other disease==
==Differentiating COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome Disease from other disease==
 
*For further information about the differential diagnosis, click [[COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome differential diagnosis|here]].
* Children who met criteria for COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome presented features that overlapped with the ones seen on [[Kawasaki's disease]] and [[toxic shock syndrome]], such as [[conjunctival injection]], [[oropharyngeal]] findings (red and/or cracked lips, [[strawberry tongue]]), [[rash]], [[Swelling|swollen]] and/or [[erythematous]] hands and feet, and cervical [[lymphadenopathy]].<ref name=":1">Whittaker E, Bamford A, Kenny J, et al; PMIS-TS Study Group; EUCLIDS and PERFORM Consortia. Clinical and laboratory characteristics of 58 children with a pediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated with SARSCoV-2. JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.10369</ref>
*To view the differential diagnosis of COVID-19, [[COVID-19 differential diagnosis|click here]].<br />
*[[PCR]] tests for SARS-CoV-2 were positive in the minority of cases (26%), while the [[IgG]] [[antibody]] was positive in most patients (87%)<ref name=":1" /> and it remains as the preferred laboratory test for differentiating such diseases;
*The first cases of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome presented with: unrelenting [[fever]] (38–40°C), [[conjunctivitis]], cutaneous [[rash]], [[peripheral edema]], extremity pain and remarkable [[gastrointestinal]] symptoms. Most didn't have any respiratory symptoms, and all progressed to warm vasoplegic [[Shock (circulatory)|shock]], refractory to volume resuscitation demanding [[vasopressors]] for [[hemodynamic]] support.<ref name=":4">Riphagen, Shelley, et al. "Hyperinflammatory shock in children during COVID-19 pandemic." ''The Lancet'' 395.10237 (2020): 1607-1608.</ref>
*[[Serum]] [[IL-6]] level was elevated in most patients. IL-2R, IL-18, and CXCL 9 levels were elevated in all patients of a cohort and mildly increased IFN-γ and [[IL-8]] levels in some.
*[[TNF-α]], IL-1b, [[IL-2]], [[IL-4]], [[IL-5]], and [[IL-13]] levels remained normal in one in a series of cases from New York City.<ref>Cheung, Eva W., et al. "Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome Related to COVID-19 in Previously Healthy Children and Adolescents in New York City." ''JAMA'' (2020).</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Summary of laboratory parameters of a COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome cohort compared with the historic cohorts of Kawasaki Disease, Kawasaki Disease Shock Syndrome and Toxic Shock Syndrome<ref name=":1" />
!Parameters
!COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome (PIMS-TS)
!Kawasaki Disease (KD)
!Kawasaki Disease Shock (KDS)
!Toxic Shock Syndrome (TSS)
|-
|'''Age (median, IQR)'''
|9 (5.7-14)
|2.7 (1.4-4.7)
|3.8 (0.2-18)
|7.38 (2.4-15.4)
|-
|'''Total white cell count (*10^9/L)'''
|17 (12-22)
|13.4 (10.5-17.3)
|12.1 (7.9-15.5)
|15.6 (7.5-20)
|-
|'''Neutrophil count (*10^9/L)'''
|13 (10-19)
|7.2 (5.1-9.9)
|5.5 (3.2-10.3)
|16.4 (12-22)
|-
|'''Lymphocyte count (*10^9/L)'''
|0.8 (0.5-1.5)
|2.8 (1.5-4.4)
|1.6 (1-2.5)
|0.63 (0.41, 1.13)
|-
|'''Hemoglobin (g/L)'''
|92 (83-103)
|111.0 (105-119)
|107 (98-115)
|114 (98-130)
|-
|'''Platelet number (10^9/L)'''
|151 (104-210)
|365.0 (288-462)
|235 (138-352)
|155 (92- 255)
|-
|'''C-reactive protein (mg/L)'''
|229 (156-338)
|67.0(40-150)
|193 (83-237)
|201 (122, 317)
|-
|'''ALT (IU/L)'''
|42 (26-95)
|42.0 (24-112)
|73 (34-107)
|30.00 (22.10, 49.25)
|-
|'''Albumin (g/L)'''
|24 (21-27)
|38.0 (35-41)
|30 (27-35)
|27.00 (21.00, 31.00)
|-
|'''Ferritin (ug/L)'''
|610 (359-1280)
|200 (143-243)
|301 (228-337)
| -
|-
|'''NT-Pro-BNP (pg/ml)'''
|788 (174-10548)
|41 (12-102)
|396 (57-1520)
| -
|-
|'''Troponin (ng/L)'''
|45 (8-294)
|10.0 (10-20)
|10 (10-30)
| -
|-
|'''D-dimer (ng/ml)'''
|3578 (2085- 8235)
|1650 (970-2660)
|2580 (1460- 2990)
| -
|}
 
* Most patients presented with the following findings: elevated [[erythrocyte sedimentation rate]] or [[C-reactive protein (CRP)|C-reactive protein]] level, elevated [[ferritin]] level, [[lymphocytopenia]], [[hypoalbuminemia]], [[neutrophilia]], elevated [[alanine aminotransferase]] level, [[anemia]], [[thrombocytopenia]] prolonged [[INR]], elevated [[d-dimer]] level, or elevated [[fibrinogen]] level.<ref name=":2" />


==Epidemiology and Demographics==
==Epidemiology and Demographics==
*Poor prognostic factors include age over 5 years and [[ferritin]] larger than 1400 µg/L.<ref name=":5">Pouletty, Marie, et al. "Paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2 mimicking Kawasaki disease (Kawa-COVID-19): a multicentre cohort." ''Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases'' (2020).</ref>
'''Age'''
'''Age'''


*Children aged age over 5 years seem to have a worse [[prognosis]] than younger ones.<ref name=":5" />
*Children aged 5 years and older seem to have a worse [[prognosis]] than children less than 5 years old.<ref name="pmid32511676">{{cite journal| author=Cheung EW, Zachariah P, Gorelik M, Boneparth A, Kernie SG, Orange JS | display-authors=etal| title=Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome Related to COVID-19 in Previously Healthy Children and Adolescents in New York City. | journal=JAMA | year= 2020 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=32511676 | doi=10.1001/jama.2020.10374 | pmc=7281352 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32511676  }} </ref>
*The [[median]] age found out in a study published by JAMA was 9 years.<ref name=":1" />
*A recent study published in the Journal of American Medical Associated reported that children with this disease had a [[median]] age of 9 years.<ref name="pmid32511692" />


'''Gender'''
'''Gender'''


* Most of the cases, estimated in two thirds, seem to happen in boys.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" />
* Most of the cases presented in males.<ref name="pmid32511692" /><ref name="pmid32386565">{{cite journal| author=Riphagen S, Gomez X, Gonzalez-Martinez C, Wilkinson N, Theocharis P| title=Hyperinflammatory shock in children during COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=Lancet | year= 2020 | volume= 395 | issue= 10237 | pages= 1607-1608 | pmid=32386565 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31094-1 | pmc=7204765 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32386565  }} </ref>


'''Race'''
'''Race'''


*It seems to affect predominantly blacks and asians.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" />
*It seems to affect predominantly blacks and Asian children.<ref name="pmid32511692" /><ref name="pmid32386565" />


'''Comorbidities'''
'''Comorbidities'''


* Clinical evidence of association with underlying diseases is still scarce since it is a rare presentation of [[COVID-19]] in children and teenagers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/multisystem-inflammatory-syndrome-in-children-and-adolescents-with-covid-19|title=World Health Organization - Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and adolescents temporally related to COVID-19|last=|first=|date=07/13/2020|website=WHO|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Clinical evidence of the association with underlying diseases is still undetermined.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/multisystem-inflammatory-syndrome-in-children-and-adolescents-with-covid-19|title=World Health Organization - Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and adolescents temporally related to COVID-19|last=|first=|date=07/13/2020|website=WHO|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>


== Complications and Prognosis==
==Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis==
Complications of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome include:<ref name="RiphagenGomez2020">{{cite journal|last1=Riphagen|first1=Shelley|last2=Gomez|first2=Xabier|last3=Gonzalez-Martinez|first3=Carmen|last4=Wilkinson|first4=Nick|last5=Theocharis|first5=Paraskevi|title=Hyperinflammatory shock in children during COVID-19 pandemic|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10237|year=2020|pages=1607–1608|issn=01406736|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31094-1}}</ref><ref name="DeBiasiSong2020">{{cite journal|last1=DeBiasi|first1=Roberta L.|last2=Song|first2=Xiaoyan|last3=Delaney|first3=Meghan|last4=Bell|first4=Michael|last5=Smith|first5=Karen|last6=Pershad|first6=Jay|last7=Ansusinha|first7=Emily|last8=Hahn|first8=Andrea|last9=Hamdy|first9=Rana|last10=Harik|first10=Nada|last11=Hanisch|first11=Benjamin|last12=Jantausch|first12=Barbara|last13=Koay|first13=Adeline|last14=Steinhorn|first14=Robin|last15=Newman|first15=Kurt|last16=Wessel|first16=David|title=Severe COVID-19 in Children and Young Adults in the Washington, DC Metropolitan Region|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|year=2020|issn=00223476|doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.05.007}}</ref><ref name="VerdoniMazza2020">{{cite journal|last1=Verdoni|first1=Lucio|last2=Mazza|first2=Angelo|last3=Gervasoni|first3=Annalisa|last4=Martelli|first4=Laura|last5=Ruggeri|first5=Maurizio|last6=Ciuffreda|first6=Matteo|last7=Bonanomi|first7=Ezio|last8=D'Antiga|first8=Lorenzo|title=An outbreak of severe Kawasaki-like disease at the Italian epicentre of the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic: an observational cohort study|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10239|year=2020|pages=1771–1778|issn=01406736|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31103-X}}</ref><ref name="BelhadjerMéot2020">{{cite journal|last1=Belhadjer|first1=Zahra|last2=Méot|first2=Mathilde|last3=Bajolle|first3=Fanny|last4=Khraiche|first4=Diala|last5=Legendre|first5=Antoine|last6=Abakka|first6=Samya|last7=Auriau|first7=Johanne|last8=Grimaud|first8=Marion|last9=Oualha|first9=Mehdi|last10=Beghetti|first10=Maurice|last11=Wacker|first11=Julie|last12=Ovaert|first12=Caroline|last13=Hascoet|first13=Sebastien|last14=Selegny|first14=Maëlle|last15=Malekzadeh-Milani|first15=Sophie|last16=Maltret|first16=Alice|last17=Bosser|first17=Gilles|last18=Giroux|first18=Nathan|last19=Bonnemains|first19=Laurent|last20=Bordet|first20=Jeanne|last21=Di Filippo|first21=Sylvie|last22=Mauran|first22=Pierre|last23=Falcon-Eicher|first23=Sylvie|last24=Thambo|first24=Jean-Benoît|last25=Lefort|first25=Bruno|last26=Moceri|first26=Pamela|last27=Houyel|first27=Lucile|last28=Renolleau|first28=Sylvain|last29=Bonnet|first29=Damien|title=Acute heart failure in multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) in the context of global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic|journal=Circulation|year=2020|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.048360}}</ref><ref name="KlokKruip2020">{{cite journal|last1=Klok|first1=F.A.|last2=Kruip|first2=M.J.H.A.|last3=van der Meer|first3=N.J.M.|last4=Arbous|first4=M.S.|last5=Gommers|first5=D.|last6=Kant|first6=K.M.|last7=Kaptein|first7=F.H.J.|last8=van Paassen|first8=J.|last9=Stals|first9=M.A.M.|last10=Huisman|first10=M.V.|last11=Endeman|first11=H.|title=Confirmation of the high cumulative incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with COVID-19: An updated analysis|journal=Thrombosis Research|volume=191|year=2020|pages=148–150|issn=00493848|doi=10.1016/j.thromres.2020.04.041}}</ref><ref name="HennonPenque2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hennon|first1=Teresa R.|last2=Penque|first2=Michelle D.|last3=Abdul-Aziz|first3=Rabheh|last4=Alibrahim|first4=Omar S.|last5=McGreevy|first5=Megan B.|last6=Prout|first6=Andrew J.|last7=Schaefer|first7=Beverly A.|last8=Ambrusko|first8=Steven J.|last9=Pastore|first9=John V.|last10=Turkovich|first10=Stephen J.|last11=Gomez-Duarte|first11=Oscar G.|last12=Hicar|first12=Mark D.|title=COVID-19 associated Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) guidelines; a Western New York approach|journal=Progress in Pediatric Cardiology|volume=57|year=2020|pages=101232|issn=10589813|doi=10.1016/j.ppedcard.2020.101232}}</ref>
*[[Ventricular dysfunction]]
*[[Coronary artery]] changes
*Atrioventricular valve regurgitation
*Pericardial effusions
*[[Shock]]
*Venous thromboembolic events
*Cytokine storm syndrome
Factors associated with poor prognosis in COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome include:<ref name=":5">Pouletty, Marie, et al. "Paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2 mimicking Kawasaki disease (Kawa-COVID-19): a multicentre cohort." ''Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases'' (2020).</ref>
* Children younger than 1 month<ref name="urlClinical characteristics of children and young people admitted to hospital with covid-19 in United Kingdom: prospective multicentre observational cohort study | The BMJ">{{cite web |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/370/bmj.m3249 |title=Clinical characteristics of children and young people admitted to hospital with covid-19 in United Kingdom: prospective multicentre observational cohort study &#124; The BMJ |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Children older than 5 years old (age 10-14years)
* A [[ferritin]] level of higher than 1400 µg/L
* Black ethnicity<ref name="urlClinical characteristics of children and young people admitted to hospital with covid-19 in United Kingdom: prospective multicentre observational cohort study | The BMJ">{{cite web |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/370/bmj.m3249 |title=Clinical characteristics of children and young people admitted to hospital with covid-19 in United Kingdom: prospective multicentre observational cohort study &#124; The BMJ |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>


===Complications===
== Diagnosis ==
===Diagnostic Criteria===
The table below describes various diagnostic criteria for COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome:<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020">{{cite journal|last1=Feldstein|first1=Leora R.|last2=Rose|first2=Erica B.|last3=Horwitz|first3=Steven M.|last4=Collins|first4=Jennifer P.|last5=Newhams|first5=Margaret M.|last6=Son|first6=Mary Beth F.|last7=Newburger|first7=Jane W.|last8=Kleinman|first8=Lawrence C.|last9=Heidemann|first9=Sabrina M.|last10=Martin|first10=Amarilis A.|last11=Singh|first11=Aalok R.|last12=Li|first12=Simon|last13=Tarquinio|first13=Keiko M.|last14=Jaggi|first14=Preeti|last15=Oster|first15=Matthew E.|last16=Zackai|first16=Sheemon P.|last17=Gillen|first17=Jennifer|last18=Ratner|first18=Adam J.|last19=Walsh|first19=Rowan F.|last20=Fitzgerald|first20=Julie C.|last21=Keenaghan|first21=Michael A.|last22=Alharash|first22=Hussam|last23=Doymaz|first23=Sule|last24=Clouser|first24=Katharine N.|last25=Giuliano|first25=John S.|last26=Gupta|first26=Anjali|last27=Parker|first27=Robert M.|last28=Maddux|first28=Aline B.|last29=Havalad|first29=Vinod|last30=Ramsingh|first30=Stacy|last31=Bukulmez|first31=Hulya|last32=Bradford|first32=Tamara T.|last33=Smith|first33=Lincoln S.|last34=Tenforde|first34=Mark W.|last35=Carroll|first35=Christopher L.|last36=Riggs|first36=Becky J.|last37=Gertz|first37=Shira J.|last38=Daube|first38=Ariel|last39=Lansell|first39=Amanda|last40=Coronado Munoz|first40=Alvaro|last41=Hobbs|first41=Charlotte V.|last42=Marohn|first42=Kimberly L.|last43=Halasa|first43=Natasha B.|last44=Patel|first44=Manish M.|last45=Randolph|first45=Adrienne G.|title=Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in U.S. Children and Adolescents|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2020|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2021680}}</ref><ref name="urlMultisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and adolescents temporally related to COVID-19">{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/multisystem-inflammatory-syndrome-in-children-and-adolescents-with-covid-19 |title=Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and adolescents temporally related to COVID-19 |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name="urlGuidance - Paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated with COVID-19 (PIMS) | RCPCH">{{cite web |url=https://www.rcpch.ac.uk/resources/guidance-paediatric-multisystem-inflammatory-syndrome-temporally-associated-covid-19-pims |title=Guidance - Paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated with COVID-19 (PIMS) &#124; RCPCH |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><br />
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! align="center" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF |Features
! align="center" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF |World Health Organization  


*[[Myocardial infarction|Severe myocardial infarction]]<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020" />
Criteria
*[[Cardiac arrest in covid-19|Cardiac failure/arrest]]<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020" />
! align="center" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF |Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health
*[[ARDS]]<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020" />
*[[Hypervolemia]]<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020" />
*[[Acute kidney injury|Acute Kidney Injury]]
*[[Peritonitis]]<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020" />
*[[Thrombotic complications.]]<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020" />


== Diagnosis ==
(United Kingdom)  Criteria
===Diagnostic Criteria===
! align="center" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF |Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
In May 2020, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) set the criteria for multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C):<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020">{{cite journal|last1=Feldstein|first1=Leora R.|last2=Rose|first2=Erica B.|last3=Horwitz|first3=Steven M.|last4=Collins|first4=Jennifer P.|last5=Newhams|first5=Margaret M.|last6=Son|first6=Mary Beth F.|last7=Newburger|first7=Jane W.|last8=Kleinman|first8=Lawrence C.|last9=Heidemann|first9=Sabrina M.|last10=Martin|first10=Amarilis A.|last11=Singh|first11=Aalok R.|last12=Li|first12=Simon|last13=Tarquinio|first13=Keiko M.|last14=Jaggi|first14=Preeti|last15=Oster|first15=Matthew E.|last16=Zackai|first16=Sheemon P.|last17=Gillen|first17=Jennifer|last18=Ratner|first18=Adam J.|last19=Walsh|first19=Rowan F.|last20=Fitzgerald|first20=Julie C.|last21=Keenaghan|first21=Michael A.|last22=Alharash|first22=Hussam|last23=Doymaz|first23=Sule|last24=Clouser|first24=Katharine N.|last25=Giuliano|first25=John S.|last26=Gupta|first26=Anjali|last27=Parker|first27=Robert M.|last28=Maddux|first28=Aline B.|last29=Havalad|first29=Vinod|last30=Ramsingh|first30=Stacy|last31=Bukulmez|first31=Hulya|last32=Bradford|first32=Tamara T.|last33=Smith|first33=Lincoln S.|last34=Tenforde|first34=Mark W.|last35=Carroll|first35=Christopher L.|last36=Riggs|first36=Becky J.|last37=Gertz|first37=Shira J.|last38=Daube|first38=Ariel|last39=Lansell|first39=Amanda|last40=Coronado Munoz|first40=Alvaro|last41=Hobbs|first41=Charlotte V.|last42=Marohn|first42=Kimberly L.|last43=Halasa|first43=Natasha B.|last44=Patel|first44=Manish M.|last45=Randolph|first45=Adrienne G.|title=Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in U.S. Children and Adolescents|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2020|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2021680}}</ref>


* Severe disease course leading to hospitalization
(United States)  Criteria
* Individuals younger than 21 years old  
|-
* Fever (body temperature, >38.0°C) or report of subjective fever present at least 24 hours
!Age
* Laboratory evidence of inflammation
|
* Multisystem organ involvement (at least two systems)
*0-19 years old
* Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection  
|
*Not specified
|
*Younger than 21 years old
|-
! rowspan="6" |Clinical Features
|
*[[Fever]] lasting more than 3 days
|
*Persistent [[fever]]
|
*[[Fever]] (body temperature, >38.0°C) or report of subjective [[fever]] present at least 24 hours
|-
|
*More than 2 of the followings:
| rowspan="5" |
*Evidence of single or multi-organ involvement
|
*Severe disease course leading to hospitalization
|-
|1. [[Rash]] or non-purulent [[Conjunctivitis|conjunctival injection]] or mucocutaneous involvement
| rowspan="4" |
*Multisystem organ involvement (at least two systems)
|-
|2. Low blood pressure/[[Shock]]
|-
|3. Findings consistent with [[myocarditis]], [[pericarditis]], [[valvulitis]] or [[coronary]] involvement
|-
|4. Acute [[gastrointestinal]] symptoms
|-
! rowspan="2" |Laboratory Findings
|5. Laboratory evidence of [[coagulopathy]]
| rowspan="2" |
*Laboratory evidence of [[inflammation]]
| rowspan="2" |
*Laboratory evidence of [[inflammation]]
|-
|
*Laboratory evidence of [[inflammation]]
|-
!Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2
|
*Laboratory-confirmed [[SARS-CoV-2]] infection
*A history of COVID-19 exposure
|
*Positive/Negative [[SARS-Cov-2]] test
|
*Laboratory-confirmed [[SARS-CoV-2]] infection
*A history of COVID-19 exposure within the 4 weeks prior to the onset of [[symptoms]] 
|-
!Others
|
*Absence of other possible cause
|
*Exclusion of other possible cause
|
*Absence of other diagnoses
|}


=== History and Symptoms ===
=== History and Symptoms ===
COVID-19 associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is associated with the following symptoms:<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020">{{cite journal|last1=Feldstein|first1=Leora R.|last2=Rose|first2=Erica B.|last3=Horwitz|first3=Steven M.|last4=Collins|first4=Jennifer P.|last5=Newhams|first5=Margaret M.|last6=Son|first6=Mary Beth F.|last7=Newburger|first7=Jane W.|last8=Kleinman|first8=Lawrence C.|last9=Heidemann|first9=Sabrina M.|last10=Martin|first10=Amarilis A.|last11=Singh|first11=Aalok R.|last12=Li|first12=Simon|last13=Tarquinio|first13=Keiko M.|last14=Jaggi|first14=Preeti|last15=Oster|first15=Matthew E.|last16=Zackai|first16=Sheemon P.|last17=Gillen|first17=Jennifer|last18=Ratner|first18=Adam J.|last19=Walsh|first19=Rowan F.|last20=Fitzgerald|first20=Julie C.|last21=Keenaghan|first21=Michael A.|last22=Alharash|first22=Hussam|last23=Doymaz|first23=Sule|last24=Clouser|first24=Katharine N.|last25=Giuliano|first25=John S.|last26=Gupta|first26=Anjali|last27=Parker|first27=Robert M.|last28=Maddux|first28=Aline B.|last29=Havalad|first29=Vinod|last30=Ramsingh|first30=Stacy|last31=Bukulmez|first31=Hulya|last32=Bradford|first32=Tamara T.|last33=Smith|first33=Lincoln S.|last34=Tenforde|first34=Mark W.|last35=Carroll|first35=Christopher L.|last36=Riggs|first36=Becky J.|last37=Gertz|first37=Shira J.|last38=Daube|first38=Ariel|last39=Lansell|first39=Amanda|last40=Coronado Munoz|first40=Alvaro|last41=Hobbs|first41=Charlotte V.|last42=Marohn|first42=Kimberly L.|last43=Halasa|first43=Natasha B.|last44=Patel|first44=Manish M.|last45=Randolph|first45=Adrienne G.|title=Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in U.S. Children and Adolescents|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2020|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2021680}}</ref>
COVID-19 associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is associated with the following symptoms:<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020">{{cite journal|last1=Feldstein|first1=Leora R.|last2=Rose|first2=Erica B.|last3=Horwitz|first3=Steven M.|last4=Collins|first4=Jennifer P.|last5=Newhams|first5=Margaret M.|last6=Son|first6=Mary Beth F.|last7=Newburger|first7=Jane W.|last8=Kleinman|first8=Lawrence C.|last9=Heidemann|first9=Sabrina M.|last10=Martin|first10=Amarilis A.|last11=Singh|first11=Aalok R.|last12=Li|first12=Simon|last13=Tarquinio|first13=Keiko M.|last14=Jaggi|first14=Preeti|last15=Oster|first15=Matthew E.|last16=Zackai|first16=Sheemon P.|last17=Gillen|first17=Jennifer|last18=Ratner|first18=Adam J.|last19=Walsh|first19=Rowan F.|last20=Fitzgerald|first20=Julie C.|last21=Keenaghan|first21=Michael A.|last22=Alharash|first22=Hussam|last23=Doymaz|first23=Sule|last24=Clouser|first24=Katharine N.|last25=Giuliano|first25=John S.|last26=Gupta|first26=Anjali|last27=Parker|first27=Robert M.|last28=Maddux|first28=Aline B.|last29=Havalad|first29=Vinod|last30=Ramsingh|first30=Stacy|last31=Bukulmez|first31=Hulya|last32=Bradford|first32=Tamara T.|last33=Smith|first33=Lincoln S.|last34=Tenforde|first34=Mark W.|last35=Carroll|first35=Christopher L.|last36=Riggs|first36=Becky J.|last37=Gertz|first37=Shira J.|last38=Daube|first38=Ariel|last39=Lansell|first39=Amanda|last40=Coronado Munoz|first40=Alvaro|last41=Hobbs|first41=Charlotte V.|last42=Marohn|first42=Kimberly L.|last43=Halasa|first43=Natasha B.|last44=Patel|first44=Manish M.|last45=Randolph|first45=Adrienne G.|title=Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in U.S. Children and Adolescents|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2020|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2021680}}</ref><ref name="HennonPenque2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hennon|first1=Teresa R.|last2=Penque|first2=Michelle D.|last3=Abdul-Aziz|first3=Rabheh|last4=Alibrahim|first4=Omar S.|last5=McGreevy|first5=Megan B.|last6=Prout|first6=Andrew J.|last7=Schaefer|first7=Beverly A.|last8=Ambrusko|first8=Steven J.|last9=Pastore|first9=John V.|last10=Turkovich|first10=Stephen J.|last11=Gomez-Duarte|first11=Oscar G.|last12=Hicar|first12=Mark D.|title=COVID-19 associated Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) guidelines; a Western New York approach|journal=Progress in Pediatric Cardiology|volume=57|year=2020|pages=101232|issn=10589813|doi=10.1016/j.ppedcard.2020.101232}}</ref>
*[[Fever]] lasting 24 hours or longer.
*[[Fever]] lasting 24 hours or longer.
*[[Vomiting]]
*[[Vomiting]]
Line 192: Line 168:
*[[Cyanosis]]
*[[Cyanosis]]
===Laboratory Findings===
===Laboratory Findings===
COVID-19 associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is associated with the following laboratory findings:<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020">{{cite journal|last1=Feldstein|first1=Leora R.|last2=Rose|first2=Erica B.|last3=Horwitz|first3=Steven M.|last4=Collins|first4=Jennifer P.|last5=Newhams|first5=Margaret M.|last6=Son|first6=Mary Beth F.|last7=Newburger|first7=Jane W.|last8=Kleinman|first8=Lawrence C.|last9=Heidemann|first9=Sabrina M.|last10=Martin|first10=Amarilis A.|last11=Singh|first11=Aalok R.|last12=Li|first12=Simon|last13=Tarquinio|first13=Keiko M.|last14=Jaggi|first14=Preeti|last15=Oster|first15=Matthew E.|last16=Zackai|first16=Sheemon P.|last17=Gillen|first17=Jennifer|last18=Ratner|first18=Adam J.|last19=Walsh|first19=Rowan F.|last20=Fitzgerald|first20=Julie C.|last21=Keenaghan|first21=Michael A.|last22=Alharash|first22=Hussam|last23=Doymaz|first23=Sule|last24=Clouser|first24=Katharine N.|last25=Giuliano|first25=John S.|last26=Gupta|first26=Anjali|last27=Parker|first27=Robert M.|last28=Maddux|first28=Aline B.|last29=Havalad|first29=Vinod|last30=Ramsingh|first30=Stacy|last31=Bukulmez|first31=Hulya|last32=Bradford|first32=Tamara T.|last33=Smith|first33=Lincoln S.|last34=Tenforde|first34=Mark W.|last35=Carroll|first35=Christopher L.|last36=Riggs|first36=Becky J.|last37=Gertz|first37=Shira J.|last38=Daube|first38=Ariel|last39=Lansell|first39=Amanda|last40=Coronado Munoz|first40=Alvaro|last41=Hobbs|first41=Charlotte V.|last42=Marohn|first42=Kimberly L.|last43=Halasa|first43=Natasha B.|last44=Patel|first44=Manish M.|last45=Randolph|first45=Adrienne G.|title=Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in U.S. Children and Adolescents|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2020|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2021680}}</ref>
COVID-19 associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is associated with the following laboratory findings:<ref name="FeldsteinRose2020">{{cite journal|last1=Feldstein|first1=Leora R.|last2=Rose|first2=Erica B.|last3=Horwitz|first3=Steven M.|last4=Collins|first4=Jennifer P.|last5=Newhams|first5=Margaret M.|last6=Son|first6=Mary Beth F.|last7=Newburger|first7=Jane W.|last8=Kleinman|first8=Lawrence C.|last9=Heidemann|first9=Sabrina M.|last10=Martin|first10=Amarilis A.|last11=Singh|first11=Aalok R.|last12=Li|first12=Simon|last13=Tarquinio|first13=Keiko M.|last14=Jaggi|first14=Preeti|last15=Oster|first15=Matthew E.|last16=Zackai|first16=Sheemon P.|last17=Gillen|first17=Jennifer|last18=Ratner|first18=Adam J.|last19=Walsh|first19=Rowan F.|last20=Fitzgerald|first20=Julie C.|last21=Keenaghan|first21=Michael A.|last22=Alharash|first22=Hussam|last23=Doymaz|first23=Sule|last24=Clouser|first24=Katharine N.|last25=Giuliano|first25=John S.|last26=Gupta|first26=Anjali|last27=Parker|first27=Robert M.|last28=Maddux|first28=Aline B.|last29=Havalad|first29=Vinod|last30=Ramsingh|first30=Stacy|last31=Bukulmez|first31=Hulya|last32=Bradford|first32=Tamara T.|last33=Smith|first33=Lincoln S.|last34=Tenforde|first34=Mark W.|last35=Carroll|first35=Christopher L.|last36=Riggs|first36=Becky J.|last37=Gertz|first37=Shira J.|last38=Daube|first38=Ariel|last39=Lansell|first39=Amanda|last40=Coronado Munoz|first40=Alvaro|last41=Hobbs|first41=Charlotte V.|last42=Marohn|first42=Kimberly L.|last43=Halasa|first43=Natasha B.|last44=Patel|first44=Manish M.|last45=Randolph|first45=Adrienne G.|title=Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in U.S. Children and Adolescents|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2020|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2021680}}</ref><ref name="CheungZachariah2020">{{cite journal|last1=Cheung|first1=Eva W.|last2=Zachariah|first2=Philip|last3=Gorelik|first3=Mark|last4=Boneparth|first4=Alexis|last5=Kernie|first5=Steven G.|last6=Orange|first6=Jordan S.|last7=Milner|first7=Joshua D.|title=Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome Related to COVID-19 in Previously Healthy Children and Adolescents in New York City|journal=JAMA|year=2020|issn=0098-7484|doi=10.1001/jama.2020.10374}}</ref>
 
*[[Erythrocyte sedimentation rate|High ESR]]
*[[Erythrocyte sedimentation rate|High ESR]]
*[[Lymphopenia]]
*[[Lymphopenia]]
Line 205: Line 182:
* Elevated [[Triglyceride|triglycerides]]
* Elevated [[Triglyceride|triglycerides]]
==== Inflammatory biomarkers ====
==== Inflammatory biomarkers ====
Elevation of inflammatory markers including ESR, C reactive protein, and procalcitonin are usually seen in MIS-C. Increased level of  [[Interleukin-6]] (IL-6), Interleukin-10(IL-10) [[d-dimer]], serum [[ferritin]], [[prothrombin time]] have also been seen in MIS-C.
Elevation of [[inflammatory]] markers including [[erythrocyte sedimentation rate]], [[reactive protein]], and procalcitonin are usually seen in MIS-C. Increased level of  [[Interleukin-6]] (IL-6), [[Interleukin-10]] (IL-10) [[d-dimer]], serum [[ferritin]], [[prothrombin time]] have also been seen in MIS-C.
==== Cardiac biomarkers ====
==== Cardiac biomarkers ====
Elevation of cardic enzymes including  [[Cardiac troponin|cardiac troponins]] ([[Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and T (cTnT)|cardiac troponin I(cTnI) and cardiac troponin T (cTnT)]]) and [[Brain natriuretic peptide]] ([[BNP]])) has been observed in MIS-C patients.
Elevation of [[cardic enzymes]] including  [[Cardiac troponin|cardiac troponins]] ([[Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and T (cTnT)|cardiac troponin I(cTnI) and cardiac troponin T (cTnT)]]) and [[Brain natriuretic peptide]] ([[BNP]])) has been observed in MIS-C patients.
* To view the complete physical examination in COVID-19, [[COVID-19 physical examination|click here]].
* To view the complete physical examination in COVID-19, [[COVID-19 physical examination|click here]].
* To view the laboratory findings on COVID-19, [[COVID-19 laboratory findings|click here]].
* To view the [[laboratory]] findings on COVID-19, [[COVID-19 laboratory findings|click here]].
===X-ray===
===X-ray===
X-ray of patients with COVID-19 associated multiorgan system inflammatory syndrome may be normal. When abnormal, findings may include the followings:<ref name="HameedElbaaly2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hameed|first1=Shema|last2=Elbaaly|first2=Heba|last3=Reid|first3=Catriona E. L.|last4=Santos|first4=Rui M. F.|last5=Shivamurthy|first5=Vinay|last6=Wong|first6=James|last7=Jogeesvaran|first7=K. Haran|title=Spectrum of Imaging Findings on Chest Radiographs, US, CT, and MRI                    Images in Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) Associated with                    COVID-19|journal=Radiology|year=2020|pages=202543|issn=0033-8419|doi=10.1148/radiol.2020202543}}</ref>
[[X-ray]] of patients with COVID-19 associated multiorgan system inflammatory syndrome may be normal. When abnormal, findings may include the followings:<ref name="HameedElbaaly2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hameed|first1=Shema|last2=Elbaaly|first2=Heba|last3=Reid|first3=Catriona E. L.|last4=Santos|first4=Rui M. F.|last5=Shivamurthy|first5=Vinay|last6=Wong|first6=James|last7=Jogeesvaran|first7=K. Haran|title=Spectrum of Imaging Findings on Chest Radiographs, US, CT, and MRI                    Images in Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) Associated with                    COVID-19|journal=Radiology|year=2020|pages=202543|issn=0033-8419|doi=10.1148/radiol.2020202543}}</ref>
*Peribronchial cuffing
*Peribronchial cuffing
*Perihilar interstitial thickening
*Perihilar interstitial thickening
*Perihilar opacification
*Perihilar opacification
*Perihilar consolidation
*Perihilar [[consolidation]]
*Low volume pleural effusion affecting both lungs
*Low volume [[pleural effusion]] affecting both lungs
*Left lower lobe atelectasis
*Left lower lobe [[atelectasis]]
===Echocardiography or Ultrasound===
Abdominal ultrasound imaging of patients with COVID-19 associated multiorgan system inflammatory syndrome may include the following findings:<ref name="HameedElbaaly2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hameed|first1=Shema|last2=Elbaaly|first2=Heba|last3=Reid|first3=Catriona E. L.|last4=Santos|first4=Rui M. F.|last5=Shivamurthy|first5=Vinay|last6=Wong|first6=James|last7=Jogeesvaran|first7=K. Haran|title=Spectrum of Imaging Findings on Chest Radiographs, US, CT, and MRI                    Images in Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) Associated with                    COVID-19|journal=Radiology|year=2020|pages=202543|issn=0033-8419|doi=10.1148/radiol.2020202543}}</ref>
*Free-fluid
*Localised inflammatory change within the right iliac fossa
*A combination of echogenic expanded mesenteric fat and enlarged lymph nodes
*Bowel wall thickening of parts of [[ileum]] and [[cecum]]
*[[Gall bladder]] wall thickening and edema
To view the [[echocardiographic]] findings on COVID-19, [[COVID-19 echocardiography and ultrasound|click here]].<br />
 
===CT scan===
===CT scan===
Chest CT scan of patients with COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome includes the following patterns:<ref name="HameedElbaaly2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hameed|first1=Shema|last2=Elbaaly|first2=Heba|last3=Reid|first3=Catriona E. L.|last4=Santos|first4=Rui M. F.|last5=Shivamurthy|first5=Vinay|last6=Wong|first6=James|last7=Jogeesvaran|first7=K. Haran|title=Spectrum of Imaging Findings on Chest Radiographs, US, CT, and MRI                    Images in Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) Associated with                    COVID-19|journal=Radiology|year=2020|pages=202543|issn=0033-8419|doi=10.1148/radiol.2020202543}}</ref>
Chest CT scan of patients with COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome includes the following patterns:<ref name="HameedElbaaly2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hameed|first1=Shema|last2=Elbaaly|first2=Heba|last3=Reid|first3=Catriona E. L.|last4=Santos|first4=Rui M. F.|last5=Shivamurthy|first5=Vinay|last6=Wong|first6=James|last7=Jogeesvaran|first7=K. Haran|title=Spectrum of Imaging Findings on Chest Radiographs, US, CT, and MRI                    Images in Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) Associated with                    COVID-19|journal=Radiology|year=2020|pages=202543|issn=0033-8419|doi=10.1148/radiol.2020202543}}</ref>
*Consolidation and collapse of the lung bases
*Consolidation and collapse of the lung bases
*Pleural effusions
*[[Pleural effusions]]
*Diffuse bilateral ground-glass opacities with dense, patchy consolidation
*Diffuse bilateral ground-glass opacities with dense, patchy consolidation
To view the CT scan findings on COVID-19, [[COVID-19 CT scan|click here]].
Abdominal CT scan may show the following abnormalities:
*[[Intestinal]] wall thickening particularly in the [[terminal ileum]] and [[cecum]]
To view the [[CT scan]] findings on COVID-19, [[COVID-19 CT scan|click here]].
===MRI===
* To view the [[MRI]] findings on COVID-19, [[COVID-19 MRI|click here]].<br />
===Other Imaging Findings===
* To view other imaging findings on COVID-19, [[COVID-19 other imaging findings|click here]].<br />
===Other Diagnostic Studies===
* To view other [[diagnostic]] studies for COVID-19, [[COVID-19 other diagnostic studies|click here]].<br />
 
== Treatment ==
== Treatment ==
=== Medical Therapy ===
=== Medical Therapy ===
 
Treatment of patients with COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome includes:<ref name="HennonPenque2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hennon|first1=Teresa R.|last2=Penque|first2=Michelle D.|last3=Abdul-Aziz|first3=Rabheh|last4=Alibrahim|first4=Omar S.|last5=McGreevy|first5=Megan B.|last6=Prout|first6=Andrew J.|last7=Schaefer|first7=Beverly A.|last8=Ambrusko|first8=Steven J.|last9=Pastore|first9=John V.|last10=Turkovich|first10=Stephen J.|last11=Gomez-Duarte|first11=Oscar G.|last12=Hicar|first12=Mark D.|title=COVID-19 associated Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) guidelines; a Western New York approach|journal=Progress in Pediatric Cardiology|volume=57|year=2020|pages=101232|issn=10589813|doi=10.1016/j.ppedcard.2020.101232}}</ref>
*All the children with MIS-C are treated as suspected [[COVID-19|COVID-19.]]
* [[Antibiotics]]: broad-spectrum antibiotics are recommended initially.
*Mild to Moderate cases of MIS-C are managed supportively.<ref name="A1"">{{Cite web|url=https://www.chop.edu/clinical-pathway/multisystem-inflammatory-syndrome-mis-c-clinical-pathway|title=Emergency Department, ICU and Inpatient Clinical Pathway for
** If the symptoms are mild, [[ceftriaxone]] may be sufficient.
Evaluation of Possible Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome (MIS-C)|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="A2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.chkd.org/uploadedFiles/Documents/COVID-19/CHKD%20MIS-C%20Guideline%20D2.pdf|title= Evaluation and Management of COVID-19 Multisystem Inflammatory
** If the [[gastrointestinal]] symptoms are predominant, then metronidazole is recommended.
Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>
** In case of severe [[symptoms]] including [[shock]] the following antibiotics have been recommended:
*Supplemental [[oxygen]] is required in children with low oxygen saturation.<ref name="A2"/>
***[[Vancomycin]], [[clindamycin]], and [[cefepime]]
*[[Fluid replacement|Fluid resuscitation]] in 10 ml/kg aliquots with reevaluation after each bolus. Maintain euvolemia. Avoid hypervolemia.<ref name="A2"/>
***[[Vancomycin]], [[meropenem]], and [[gentamicin]]
*Anti-inflammatory treatments with [[Intravenous immunoglobulin|Intravenous immunoglobulin(IVIG]]) with or without [[Corticosteroid|corticosteroids]] have shown a good response rate.<ref name="A1""/><ref name="A2"/>
* [[Remdesivir]] is indicated in children with  PCR positive COVID-19 and/or with a presentation consistent with typical COVID-19.
*[[Aspirin]] has been used primarily for its antiplatelet effect. It is recommended in all patients with [[MIS-C]].<ref name="A1""/><ref name="A2"/>
** It should be administered 5 mg/kg loading dose IV once (max dose 200 mg) on day 1, then 2.5 mg/kg (100 mg max dose) IV daily for nine days.
*[[Anakinra]] is considered if fevers last more than 24 hours post [[Steroid|steroids]]/[[Intravenous immunoglobulin|IVIG]] or in the moderate or severe presentation.<ref name="A1""/><ref name="A2"/>
*Cardiac and respiratory support is recommended for patients presenting with [[shock]].
*[[Tocilizumab]] is also considered if fevers last more than 24 hours post steroids/IVIG or in the moderate or severe presentation.<ref name="A1""/><ref name="A2"/>
* [[IVIG]] and aspirin for Kawasaki-like disease
*Empiric antibiotics like [[vancomycin]], [[ceftriaxone]], and [[clindamycin]] are given for community-acquired shock presentation until cultures are negative for 48 hours.<ref name="A1""/><ref name="A2"/>
** [[IVIG]] 2 g/kg for all patients with
 
** [[Aspirin]] 20–25 mg/kg/dose every 6 h (80–100 mg/kg/day) for all patients with
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
[[Patients]] with KD-like illness in high-risk categories should receive IVIG with other agents.The high-risk category includes:
! width="225" |Presentation
*Infants
! width="225" |Treatment
*Those with KD shock syndrome
|-
*Those with [[CRP]] > 130 g/dL
|Mild Disease||
*Those with admission echo Z score > 2.5 or [[aneurysms]]
*Symptomatic Treatment
*Asian race
|-
The following treatment regimen is recommended for patients with KD-like illness in high-risk categories:
|Severe Disease||
* [[IVIG]] 2 g/kg as a single infusion with three-day pulse methylprednisolone. If fails, then:
*Symptomatic Treatment
* The second dose of [[IVIG]] or [[infliximab]] (a Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha inhibitor)
*[[Intravenous immunoglobulin|IVIG(IV)]]
* Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis may be indicated as well.
*[[Corticosteroid|Corticosteroids]](IV/PO)
* Few studies have reported that [[interleukin-1]] inhibitors may be effective in the treatment of severe cases.<ref name="ShahMunoz2020">{{cite journal|last1=Shah|first1=Satish K.|last2=Munoz|first2=Alvaro Coronado|title=Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children in COVID-19 Pandemic|journal=The Indian Journal of Pediatrics|year=2020|issn=0019-5456|doi=10.1007/s12098-020-03440-7}}</ref>
*Consider adding [[Anakinra]] or [[Tocilizumab]] if [[fever]] persist for more than 24 hours post [[Steroid|steroids]] and I[[Intravenous immunoglobulin|VIG]] use.
* [[Tocilizumab]] ([[interleukin-6]] inhibitor) is another agent that has been used in some cases.  
|}
=== Prevention ===
 
*MIS-C can be prevented by reducing the risk of a child's exposure to [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 infection.
== Prevention of MIS-C ==
 
*MIS-C can be prevented by reducing the risk of child exposure to [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 infection.


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
[[Category:Up-To-Date]]

Latest revision as of 22:03, 31 August 2020

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Harmeet Kharoud M.D.[2] José Eduardo Riceto Loyola Junior, M.D.[3] Sahar Memar Montazerin, M.D.[4] Aisha Adigun, B.Sc., M.D.[5]

Synonyms and keywords: Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)

Overview

COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome (also known as PIMS-TS - pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally with SARS-CoV2 infection or MIS-C - multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children) is an uncommon clinical entity caused by SARS-CoV2 and seen mostly on children. It presents with: fever > 3 days and elevated markers of inflammation and 2 of the following 5 criteria: rash or conjunctivitis; hypotension or shock; myocardial dysfunction, pericarditis, valvulitis or coronary abnormalities; evidence of coagulopathy and/or acute gastrointestinal problems along with evidence of COVID-19. It seems to be a severe form of COVID-19 in children presenting with symptoms that can be challenging to differentiate from other pediatric infectious diseases such as toxic shock syndrome and Kawasaki disease. The pathophysiology of this form of SARS-CoV2 infection remains unknown.

Historical Perspective

  • COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome was first reported as a new febrile pediatric entity, which began to appear in late April 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in Western Europe.[1]
  • Cases of children with such symptoms were quickly identified in the New York City area, which was at that time the most heavily affected city in the U.S. by the COVID-19 pandemic;[1]
  • A report of 8 cases from Evelina London Children's Hospital was published on 6 May 2020, showing very prominent markers of inflammation such as ferritin, D-dimers, triglycerides, elevated cardiac enzymes, high NT-pro-BNP levels and troponin, being empirically treated with IVIG;[1]
  • On May 22, an article from the Journal of Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society addressed some of the similarities and differences of this new entity with Kawasaki's disease, noting that the demographics affected were significantly different, as it was not seen in Asia despite the pandemic also affecting such countries, but it was affecting mostly children of African ethnicity. The author also differentiated some of the laboratory findings, resembling the macrophage activation syndrome and not Kawasaki's disease.[1]

Classification of Disease Severity of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome

  • There is no established system for the classification of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome.

Pathophysiology

  • The exact pathophysiological mechanism of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is unclear;
  • It is thought that COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is caused by either IgG antibody-mediated enhancement of the disease, an acute viral presentation, or due to cytokine storm.[2]
  • Since there is a lag time between COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome appearance and COVID-19 infection (median time: 25 days)[3] it is suspected to be a post-infectious phenomenon related to IgG antibody-mediated enhancement of disease. There are two arguments that support this theory: the presence of IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV2 and the presence of the lag time between COVID-19 symptoms and COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome.[2]
  • There is, however, another theory that states that it is still an acute viral presentation of the disease due to the fact that children presenting with such symptoms undergone exploratory laparotomy which found mesenteric adenitis, supporting GI infection. SARS-CoV2 is also known to easily infect enterocytes. Another interesting point to consider is that the worsening of illness has not been observed in patients with COVID-19 who are treated with convalescent plasma, which could have occurred if it was an antibody-mediated enhancement.[2]
  • There is another hypothesis for the cytokine storm seen on children with COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is originated from the known ability of coronaviruses to block type I and type III interferon responses, delaying the cytokine storm in patients that could not control the viral replication on earlier phases of the disease.[2]

Differentiating COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome Disease from other disease

  • For further information about the differential diagnosis, click here.
  • To view the differential diagnosis of COVID-19, click here.

Epidemiology and Demographics

Age

  • Children aged 5 years and older seem to have a worse prognosis than children less than 5 years old.[4]
  • A recent study published in the Journal of American Medical Associated reported that children with this disease had a median age of 9 years.[5]

Gender

  • Most of the cases presented in males.[5][6]

Race

  • It seems to affect predominantly blacks and Asian children.[5][6]

Comorbidities

  • Clinical evidence of the association with underlying diseases is still undetermined.[7]

Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

Complications of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome include:[8][9][10][11][12][13]

Factors associated with poor prognosis in COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome include:[14]

  • Children younger than 1 month[15]
  • Children older than 5 years old (age 10-14years)
  • A ferritin level of higher than 1400 µg/L
  • Black ethnicity[15]

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Criteria

The table below describes various diagnostic criteria for COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome:[16][17][18]

Features World Health Organization  

Criteria

Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health

(United Kingdom)  Criteria

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

(United States)  Criteria

Age
  • 0-19 years old
  • Not specified
  • Younger than 21 years old
Clinical Features
  • Fever lasting more than 3 days
  • Fever (body temperature, >38.0°C) or report of subjective fever present at least 24 hours
  • More than 2 of the followings:
  • Evidence of single or multi-organ involvement
  • Severe disease course leading to hospitalization
1. Rash or non-purulent conjunctival injection or mucocutaneous involvement
  • Multisystem organ involvement (at least two systems)
2. Low blood pressure/Shock
3. Findings consistent with myocarditis, pericarditis, valvulitis or coronary involvement
4. Acute gastrointestinal symptoms
Laboratory Findings 5. Laboratory evidence of coagulopathy
Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2
  • Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection
  • A history of COVID-19 exposure
  • Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection
  • A history of COVID-19 exposure within the 4 weeks prior to the onset of symptoms 
Others
  • Absence of other possible cause
  • Exclusion of other possible cause
  • Absence of other diagnoses

History and Symptoms

COVID-19 associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is associated with the following symptoms:[16][13]

Physical Examination

COVID-19 associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is associated with the following physical examination findings:[16]

Laboratory Findings

COVID-19 associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is associated with the following laboratory findings:[16][19]

Less common laboratory findings include:

Inflammatory biomarkers

Elevation of inflammatory markers including erythrocyte sedimentation rate, reactive protein, and procalcitonin are usually seen in MIS-C. Increased level of Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Interleukin-10 (IL-10) d-dimer, serum ferritin, prothrombin time have also been seen in MIS-C.

Cardiac biomarkers

Elevation of cardic enzymes including cardiac troponins (cardiac troponin I(cTnI) and cardiac troponin T (cTnT)) and Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)) has been observed in MIS-C patients.

X-ray

X-ray of patients with COVID-19 associated multiorgan system inflammatory syndrome may be normal. When abnormal, findings may include the followings:[20]

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

Abdominal ultrasound imaging of patients with COVID-19 associated multiorgan system inflammatory syndrome may include the following findings:[20]

  • Free-fluid
  • Localised inflammatory change within the right iliac fossa
  • A combination of echogenic expanded mesenteric fat and enlarged lymph nodes
  • Bowel wall thickening of parts of ileum and cecum
  • Gall bladder wall thickening and edema

To view the echocardiographic findings on COVID-19, click here.

CT scan

Chest CT scan of patients with COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome includes the following patterns:[20]

  • Consolidation and collapse of the lung bases
  • Pleural effusions
  • Diffuse bilateral ground-glass opacities with dense, patchy consolidation

Abdominal CT scan may show the following abnormalities:

To view the CT scan findings on COVID-19, click here.

MRI

Other Imaging Findings

  • To view other imaging findings on COVID-19, click here.

Other Diagnostic Studies

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Treatment of patients with COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome includes:[13]

  • Antibiotics: broad-spectrum antibiotics are recommended initially.
  • Remdesivir is indicated in children with PCR positive COVID-19 and/or with a presentation consistent with typical COVID-19.
    • It should be administered 5 mg/kg loading dose IV once (max dose 200 mg) on day 1, then 2.5 mg/kg (100 mg max dose) IV daily for nine days.
  • Cardiac and respiratory support is recommended for patients presenting with shock.
  • IVIG and aspirin for Kawasaki-like disease
    • IVIG 2 g/kg for all patients with
    • Aspirin 20–25 mg/kg/dose every 6 h (80–100 mg/kg/day) for all patients with

Patients with KD-like illness in high-risk categories should receive IVIG with other agents.The high-risk category includes:

  • Infants
  • Those with KD shock syndrome
  • Those with CRP > 130 g/dL
  • Those with admission echo Z score > 2.5 or aneurysms
  • Asian race

The following treatment regimen is recommended for patients with KD-like illness in high-risk categories:

  • IVIG 2 g/kg as a single infusion with three-day pulse methylprednisolone. If fails, then:
  • The second dose of IVIG or infliximab (a Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha inhibitor)
  • Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis may be indicated as well.
  • Few studies have reported that interleukin-1 inhibitors may be effective in the treatment of severe cases.[21]
  • Tocilizumab (interleukin-6 inhibitor) is another agent that has been used in some cases.

Prevention

  • MIS-C can be prevented by reducing the risk of a child's exposure to COVID-19 infection.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Shulman ST (2020). "Pediatric Coronavirus Disease-2019-Associated Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome". J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 9 (3): 285–286. doi:10.1093/jpids/piaa062. PMC 7313948 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32441751 Check |pmid= value (help).
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Rowley AH (2020). "Understanding SARS-CoV-2-related multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children". Nat Rev Immunol. doi:10.1038/s41577-020-0367-5. PMC 7296515 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32546853 Check |pmid= value (help).
  3. ↑ Feldstein LR, Rose EB, Horwitz SM, Collins JP, Newhams MM, Son MBF; et al. (2020). "Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in U.S. Children and Adolescents". N Engl J Med. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2021680. PMC 7346765 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32598831 Check |pmid= value (help).
  4. ↑ Cheung EW, Zachariah P, Gorelik M, Boneparth A, Kernie SG, Orange JS; et al. (2020). "Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome Related to COVID-19 in Previously Healthy Children and Adolescents in New York City". JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.10374. PMC 7281352 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32511676 Check |pmid= value (help).
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Riphagen S, Gomez X, Gonzalez-Martinez C, Wilkinson N, Theocharis P (2020). "Hyperinflammatory shock in children during COVID-19 pandemic". Lancet. 395 (10237): 1607–1608. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31094-1. PMC 7204765 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32386565 Check |pmid= value (help).
  7. ↑ "World Health Organization - Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and adolescents temporally related to COVID-19". WHO. 07/13/2020. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ↑ Riphagen, Shelley; Gomez, Xabier; Gonzalez-Martinez, Carmen; Wilkinson, Nick; Theocharis, Paraskevi (2020). "Hyperinflammatory shock in children during COVID-19 pandemic". The Lancet. 395 (10237): 1607–1608. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31094-1. ISSN 0140-6736.
  9. ↑ DeBiasi, Roberta L.; Song, Xiaoyan; Delaney, Meghan; Bell, Michael; Smith, Karen; Pershad, Jay; Ansusinha, Emily; Hahn, Andrea; Hamdy, Rana; Harik, Nada; Hanisch, Benjamin; Jantausch, Barbara; Koay, Adeline; Steinhorn, Robin; Newman, Kurt; Wessel, David (2020). "Severe COVID-19 in Children and Young Adults in the Washington, DC Metropolitan Region". The Journal of Pediatrics. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.05.007. ISSN 0022-3476.
  10. ↑ Verdoni, Lucio; Mazza, Angelo; Gervasoni, Annalisa; Martelli, Laura; Ruggeri, Maurizio; Ciuffreda, Matteo; Bonanomi, Ezio; D'Antiga, Lorenzo (2020). "An outbreak of severe Kawasaki-like disease at the Italian epicentre of the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic: an observational cohort study". The Lancet. 395 (10239): 1771–1778. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31103-X. ISSN 0140-6736.
  11. ↑ Belhadjer, Zahra; Méot, Mathilde; Bajolle, Fanny; Khraiche, Diala; Legendre, Antoine; Abakka, Samya; Auriau, Johanne; Grimaud, Marion; Oualha, Mehdi; Beghetti, Maurice; Wacker, Julie; Ovaert, Caroline; Hascoet, Sebastien; Selegny, Maëlle; Malekzadeh-Milani, Sophie; Maltret, Alice; Bosser, Gilles; Giroux, Nathan; Bonnemains, Laurent; Bordet, Jeanne; Di Filippo, Sylvie; Mauran, Pierre; Falcon-Eicher, Sylvie; Thambo, Jean-Benoît; Lefort, Bruno; Moceri, Pamela; Houyel, Lucile; Renolleau, Sylvain; Bonnet, Damien (2020). "Acute heart failure in multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) in the context of global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic". Circulation. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.048360. ISSN 0009-7322.
  12. ↑ Klok, F.A.; Kruip, M.J.H.A.; van der Meer, N.J.M.; Arbous, M.S.; Gommers, D.; Kant, K.M.; Kaptein, F.H.J.; van Paassen, J.; Stals, M.A.M.; Huisman, M.V.; Endeman, H. (2020). "Confirmation of the high cumulative incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with COVID-19: An updated analysis". Thrombosis Research. 191: 148–150. doi:10.1016/j.thromres.2020.04.041. ISSN 0049-3848.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Hennon, Teresa R.; Penque, Michelle D.; Abdul-Aziz, Rabheh; Alibrahim, Omar S.; McGreevy, Megan B.; Prout, Andrew J.; Schaefer, Beverly A.; Ambrusko, Steven J.; Pastore, John V.; Turkovich, Stephen J.; Gomez-Duarte, Oscar G.; Hicar, Mark D. (2020). "COVID-19 associated Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) guidelines; a Western New York approach". Progress in Pediatric Cardiology. 57: 101232. doi:10.1016/j.ppedcard.2020.101232. ISSN 1058-9813.
  14. ↑ Pouletty, Marie, et al. "Paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2 mimicking Kawasaki disease (Kawa-COVID-19): a multicentre cohort." Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases (2020).
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Clinical characteristics of children and young people admitted to hospital with covid-19 in United Kingdom: prospective multicentre observational cohort study | The BMJ".
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Feldstein, Leora R.; Rose, Erica B.; Horwitz, Steven M.; Collins, Jennifer P.; Newhams, Margaret M.; Son, Mary Beth F.; Newburger, Jane W.; Kleinman, Lawrence C.; Heidemann, Sabrina M.; Martin, Amarilis A.; Singh, Aalok R.; Li, Simon; Tarquinio, Keiko M.; Jaggi, Preeti; Oster, Matthew E.; Zackai, Sheemon P.; Gillen, Jennifer; Ratner, Adam J.; Walsh, Rowan F.; Fitzgerald, Julie C.; Keenaghan, Michael A.; Alharash, Hussam; Doymaz, Sule; Clouser, Katharine N.; Giuliano, John S.; Gupta, Anjali; Parker, Robert M.; Maddux, Aline B.; Havalad, Vinod; Ramsingh, Stacy; Bukulmez, Hulya; Bradford, Tamara T.; Smith, Lincoln S.; Tenforde, Mark W.; Carroll, Christopher L.; Riggs, Becky J.; Gertz, Shira J.; Daube, Ariel; Lansell, Amanda; Coronado Munoz, Alvaro; Hobbs, Charlotte V.; Marohn, Kimberly L.; Halasa, Natasha B.; Patel, Manish M.; Randolph, Adrienne G. (2020). "Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in U.S. Children and Adolescents". New England Journal of Medicine. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2021680. ISSN 0028-4793.
  17. ↑ "Guidance - Paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated with COVID-19 (PIMS) | RCPCH".
  18. ↑ Cheung, Eva W.; Zachariah, Philip; Gorelik, Mark; Boneparth, Alexis; Kernie, Steven G.; Orange, Jordan S.; Milner, Joshua D. (2020). "Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome Related to COVID-19 in Previously Healthy Children and Adolescents in New York City". JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.10374. ISSN 0098-7484.
  19. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Hameed, Shema; Elbaaly, Heba; Reid, Catriona E. L.; Santos, Rui M. F.; Shivamurthy, Vinay; Wong, James; Jogeesvaran, K. Haran (2020). "Spectrum of Imaging Findings on Chest Radiographs, US, CT, and MRI Images in Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) Associated with COVID-19". Radiology: 202543. doi:10.1148/radiol.2020202543. ISSN 0033-8419.
  20. ↑ Shah, Satish K.; Munoz, Alvaro Coronado (2020). "Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children in COVID-19 Pandemic". The Indian Journal of Pediatrics. doi:10.1007/s12098-020-03440-7. ISSN 0019-5456.
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