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==Overview==
==Overview==
Treatment is not required for incidentally found, asymptomatic, non-bleeding lesions. However, it is considered for non-bleeding angiodysplasia with symptoms of occult or overt GI bleed. The invasiveness of therapy depends on the clinical severity of anemia, hemodynamic stability, and recurrence of symptoms. Although endoscopic techniques are the first choice, [[hormonal therapy]], [[thalidomide]], and [[octreotide]] are the pharmacological options that have been tried for patients with significant co-morbidities who cannot undergo invasive procedures.


==Medical Therapy==
==Medical Therapy==
If the anemia is severe, [[blood transfusion]] is required before any other intervention is considered. [[Endoscopy|Endoscopic]] treatment is an initial possibility, where cautery or [[argon plasma coagulation]] (APC) laser treatment is applied through the endoscope. [[Cauterization]] may be helpful in stopping the bleeding at endoscopically accessible sites. <ref name="pmid8781937">{{cite journal| author=Askin MP, Lewis BS| title=Push enteroscopic cauterization: long-term follow-up of 83 patients with bleeding small intestinal angiodysplasia. | journal=Gastrointest Endosc | year= 1996 | volume= 43 | issue= 6 | pages= 580-3 | pmid=8781937 | doi=10.1016/s0016-5107(96)70195-5 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8781937  }} </ref> Mechanical hemostasis using hemoclips or endoclips may be used for localized lesions. Injection sclerotherapy using sclerosants like sodium tetradecyl sulfate or ethanolamine is another option, but rarely used. If the bleeding is from multiple or inaccessible sites, systemic therapy with [[medication]] may be necessary. <ref name="pmid16111979">{{cite journal| author=Moparty B, Raju GS| title=Role of hemoclips in a patient with cecal angiodysplasia at high risk of recurrent bleeding from antithrombotic therapy to maintain coronary stent patency: a case report. | journal=Gastrointest Endosc | year= 2005 | volume= 62 | issue= 3 | pages= 468-9 | pmid=16111979 | doi=10.1016/s0016-5107(05)01634-2 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16111979  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid16650560">{{cite journal| author=Pishvaian AC, Lewis JH| title=Use of endoclips to obliterate a colonic arteriovenous malformation before cauterization. | journal=Gastrointest Endosc | year= 2006 | volume= 63 | issue= 6 | pages= 865-6 | pmid=16650560 | doi=10.1016/j.gie.2005.10.020 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16650560  }} </ref> First-line options include the antifibrinolytics [[tranexamic acid]] or [[aminocaproic acid]]. Estrogens can be used to stop bleeding from angiodysplasia.  Estrogens cause mild hypercoaguability of the blood.  Estrogen side effects can be dangerous and unpleasant in both sexes.  Changes in voice and [[gynecomastia|breast swelling]] is bothersome in men, but older women often report improvement of [[libido]] and [[menopause|perimenopausal]] symptoms. (The worries about [[hormone replacement therapy]]/HRT, however, apply here as well.)


In difficult cases, there have been positive reports about [[octreotide]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Junquera F, Saperas E, Videla S, Feu F, Vilaseca J, Armengol JR, Bordas JM, Piqué JM, Malagelada JR |title=Long-term efficacy of octreotide in the prevention of recurrent bleeding from gastrointestinal angiodysplasia |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=254-60 |year=2007 |pmid=17311647 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2007.01053.x}}</ref> and thalidomide,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shurafa M, Kamboj G |title=Thalidomide for the treatment of bleeding angiodysplasias |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=221-2 |year=2003 |pmid=12526972 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2003.07201.x}}</ref>
*Pharmacological options like hormonal therapy, thalidomide, and octreotide have been tried in patients with significant co-morbidities who cannot undergo invasive procedures.
*Studies have shown [[hormonal therapy]] with ethinylestradiol and norethisterone vs [[placebo]] have no difference in outcomes.<ref name="pmid11677198">{{cite journal| author=Junquera F, Feu F, Papo M, Videla S, Armengol JR, Bordas JM | display-authors=etal| title=A multicenter, randomized, clinical trial of hormonal therapy in the prevention of rebleeding from gastrointestinal angiodysplasia. | journal=Gastroenterology | year= 2001 | volume= 121 | issue= 5 | pages= 1073-9 | pmid=11677198 | doi=10.1053/gast.2001.28650 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11677198  }} </ref> However, a few case series have shown positive results regarding the efficacy of hormonal therapy in chronic renal failure patients.<ref name="pmid3488703">{{cite journal| author=Bronner MH, Pate MB, Cunningham JT, Marsh WH| title=Estrogen-progesterone therapy for bleeding gastrointestinal telangiectasias in chronic renal failure. An uncontrolled trial. | journal=Ann Intern Med | year= 1986 | volume= 105 | issue= 3 | pages= 371-4 | pmid=3488703 | doi=10.7326/0003-4819-105-3-371 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3488703  }} </ref>
*[[Thalidomide]] inhibits [[angiogenesis]] by inhibiting [[vascular endothelial growth factor]] (VEGF)- and [[basic fibroblast growth factor]] (bFGF)-induced angiogenesis.<ref name="pmid19576118">{{cite journal| author=Chen HM, Ge ZZ, Liu WZ, Lu H, Xu CH, Fang JY | display-authors=etal| title=[The mechanisms of thalidomide in treatment of angiodysplasia due to hypoxia]. | journal=Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi | year= 2009 | volume= 48 | issue= 4 | pages= 295-8 | pmid=19576118 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19576118  }} </ref> It has been reported to be effective in the management of chronic bleeding from angiodysplasia as well as reduction in the number and size of lesions.<ref name="pmid17179574">{{cite journal| author=Heidt J, Langers AM, van der Meer FJ, Brouwer RE| title=Thalidomide as treatment for digestive tract angiodysplasias. | journal=Neth J Med | year= 2006 | volume= 64 | issue= 11 | pages= 425-8 | pmid=17179574 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17179574  }} </ref><ref name="pmid19816627">{{cite journal| author=Almadi M, Ghali PM, Constantin A, Galipeau J, Szilagyi A| title=Recurrent obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: dilemmas and success with pharmacological therapies. Case series and review. | journal=Can J Gastroenterol | year= 2009 | volume= 23 | issue= 9 | pages= 625-31 | pmid=19816627 | doi=10.1155/2009/862816 | pmc=2776553 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19816627  }} </ref><ref name="pmid19730385">{{cite journal| author=Kamalaporn P, Saravanan R, Cirocco M, May G, Kortan P, Kandel G | display-authors=etal| title=Thalidomide for the treatment of chronic gastrointestinal bleeding from angiodysplasias: a case series. | journal=Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol | year= 2009 | volume= 21 | issue= 12 | pages= 1347-50 | pmid=19730385 | doi=10.1097/MEG.0b013e32832c9346 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19730385  }} </ref><ref name="pmid17058171">{{cite journal| author=Bauditz J, Lochs H, Voderholzer W| title=Macroscopic appearance of intestinal angiodysplasias under antiangiogenic treatment with thalidomide. | journal=Endoscopy | year= 2006 | volume= 38 | issue= 10 | pages= 1036-9 | pmid=17058171 | doi=10.1055/s-2006-944829 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17058171  }} </ref>
*Long-acting [[octreotide]] has been used to treat chronic bleeding due to angiodysplasia in elderly patients.<ref name="pmid11432511">{{cite journal| author=Orsi P, Guatti-Zuliani C, Okolicsanyi L| title=Long-acting octreotide is effective in controlling rebleeding angiodysplasia of the gastrointestinal tract. | journal=Dig Liver Dis | year= 2001 | volume= 33 | issue= 4 | pages= 330-4 | pmid=11432511 | doi=10.1016/s1590-8658(01)80087-6 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11432511  }} </ref><br />
 
==Endoscopic Therapy==
 
*Endoscopic techniques are the therapy of choice for angiodysplasia.
*'''Argon plasma coagulation (APC):''' Most widely used endoscopic method for the treatment of angiodysplasia that uses high frequency electric current and ionised [[argon]] gas.<ref name="pmid14722558">{{cite journal| author=Vargo JJ| title=Clinical applications of the argon plasma coagulator. | journal=Gastrointest Endosc | year= 2004 | volume= 59 | issue= 1 | pages= 81-8 | pmid=14722558 | doi=10.1016/s0016-5107(03)02296-x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14722558  }} </ref> It is a safe and effective method of treating gastrointestinal vascular lesions.<ref name="pmid16923494">{{cite journal| author=Suzuki N, Arebi N, Saunders BP| title=A novel method of treating colonic angiodysplasia. | journal=Gastrointest Endosc | year= 2006 | volume= 64 | issue= 3 | pages= 424-7 | pmid=16923494 | doi=10.1016/j.gie.2006.04.032 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16923494  }} </ref>
*'''[[Electrocoagulation]]:''' This technique of using thermal energy to coagulate the lesions is no longer recommended due to risk of severe complications including bowel perforation.<ref name="pmid19410037">{{cite journal| author=Asge Technology Committee. Conway JD, Adler DG, Diehl DL, Farraye FA, Kantsevoy SV | display-authors=etal| title=Endoscopic hemostatic devices. | journal=Gastrointest Endosc | year= 2009 | volume= 69 | issue= 6 | pages= 987-96 | pmid=19410037 | doi=10.1016/j.gie.2008.12.251 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19410037  }} </ref>
*'''Photocoagulation:''' Uses [[Nd:YAG laser|Nd:YAG]] (neodymium:yttrium-aluminium-garnet) and argon laser for photoablation of the lesions. This technique is mainly used for gastric antral vascular ectasia. Disadvantages include risk of perforation, uneconomical, and requirement of specialist expertise.<ref name="pmid16284614">{{cite journal| author=Selinger RR, McDonald GB, Hockenbery DM, Steinbach G, Kimmey MB| title=Efficacy of neodymium:YAG laser therapy for gastric antral vascular ectasia (GAVE) following hematopoietic cell transplant. | journal=Bone Marrow Transplant | year= 2006 | volume= 37 | issue= 2 | pages= 191-7 | pmid=16284614 | doi=10.1038/sj.bmt.1705212 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16284614  }} </ref><ref name="pmid3262793">{{cite journal| author=Gostout CJ, Bowyer BA, Ahlquist DA, Viggiano TR, Balm RK| title=Mucosal vascular malformations of the gastrointestinal tract: clinical observations and results of endoscopic neodymium: yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser therapy. | journal=Mayo Clin Proc | year= 1988 | volume= 63 | issue= 10 | pages= 993-1003 | pmid=3262793 | doi=10.1016/s0025-6196(12)64914-3 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3262793  }} </ref>
*'''Endoscopic clips:''' Endoclips can be used to obliterate the feeder vessels in large colonic lesions to achieve mechanical hemostasis. Subsequent cauterization with APC is helpful to prevent re-bleeding.<ref name="pmid16650560">{{cite journal| author=Pishvaian AC, Lewis JH| title=Use of endoclips to obliterate a colonic arteriovenous malformation before cauterization. | journal=Gastrointest Endosc | year= 2006 | volume= 63 | issue= 6 | pages= 865-6 | pmid=16650560 | doi=10.1016/j.gie.2005.10.020 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16650560  }} </ref>
*'''Endoscopic ligation:''' Endoscopic band ligation is a safe and effective method to achieve hemostasis in acute non-variceal upper GI bleeding. Long-term efficacy is currently not known.<ref name="pmid11905861">{{cite journal| author=Ertekin C, Taviloglu K, Barbaros U, Guloglu R, Dolay K| title=Endoscopic band ligation: alternative treatment method in nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage. | journal=J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A | year= 2002 | volume= 12 | issue= 1 | pages= 41-5 | pmid=11905861 | doi=10.1089/109264202753486911 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11905861  }} </ref><ref name="pmid11818925">{{cite journal| author=Matsui S, Kamisako T, Kudo M, Inoue R| title=Endoscopic band ligation for control of nonvariceal upper GI hemorrhage: comparison with bipolar electrocoagulation. | journal=Gastrointest Endosc | year= 2002 | volume= 55 | issue= 2 | pages= 214-8 | pmid=11818925 | doi=10.1067/mge.2002.121337 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11818925  }} </ref><ref name="pmid12872104">{{cite journal| author=Junquera F, Brullet E, Campo R, Calvet X, Puig-Diví V, Vergara M| title=Usefulness of endoscopic band ligation for bleeding small bowel vascular lesions. | journal=Gastrointest Endosc | year= 2003 | volume= 58 | issue= 2 | pages= 274-9 | pmid=12872104 | doi=10.1067/mge.2003.357 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12872104  }} </ref>
 
==Transcatheter Angiography and Intervention (TAI)==
 
*This method is used for patients who fail endoscopic therapy or who are not good surgical candidates. This method can also be used to localize the site of active bleeding prior to surgery.
*[[Embolization]] is now preferred over local vasoconstrictive therapy with [[vasopressin]] infusion due to high risk of [[ischemia]].<ref name="pmid12481726">{{cite journal| author=Funaki B| title=Endovascular intervention for the treatment of acute arterial gastrointestinal hemorrhage. | journal=Gastroenterol Clin North Am | year= 2002 | volume= 31 | issue= 3 | pages= 701-13 | pmid=12481726 | doi=10.1016/s0889-8553(02)00025-0 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12481726  }} </ref>
*Superselective catheterization and subsequent transcatheter embolization with gelatine sponges and microcoils is currently the most effective means to control actively bleeding angiodysplastic lesions.<ref name="pmid19853226">{{cite journal| author=Walker TG| title=Acute gastrointestinal hemorrhage. | journal=Tech Vasc Interv Radiol | year= 2009 | volume= 12 | issue= 2 | pages= 80-91 | pmid=19853226 | doi=10.1053/j.tvir.2009.08.002 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19853226  }} </ref>


==References==
==References==
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Latest revision as of 13:54, 12 May 2022

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Nikita Singh, M.B.B.S.[2]

Overview

Treatment is not required for incidentally found, asymptomatic, non-bleeding lesions. However, it is considered for non-bleeding angiodysplasia with symptoms of occult or overt GI bleed. The invasiveness of therapy depends on the clinical severity of anemia, hemodynamic stability, and recurrence of symptoms. Although endoscopic techniques are the first choice, hormonal therapy, thalidomide, and octreotide are the pharmacological options that have been tried for patients with significant co-morbidities who cannot undergo invasive procedures.

Medical Therapy

  • Pharmacological options like hormonal therapy, thalidomide, and octreotide have been tried in patients with significant co-morbidities who cannot undergo invasive procedures.
  • Studies have shown hormonal therapy with ethinylestradiol and norethisterone vs placebo have no difference in outcomes.[1] However, a few case series have shown positive results regarding the efficacy of hormonal therapy in chronic renal failure patients.[2]
  • Thalidomide inhibits angiogenesis by inhibiting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)- and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF)-induced angiogenesis.[3] It has been reported to be effective in the management of chronic bleeding from angiodysplasia as well as reduction in the number and size of lesions.[4][5][6][7]
  • Long-acting octreotide has been used to treat chronic bleeding due to angiodysplasia in elderly patients.[8]

Endoscopic Therapy

  • Endoscopic techniques are the therapy of choice for angiodysplasia.
  • Argon plasma coagulation (APC): Most widely used endoscopic method for the treatment of angiodysplasia that uses high frequency electric current and ionised argon gas.[9] It is a safe and effective method of treating gastrointestinal vascular lesions.[10]
  • Electrocoagulation: This technique of using thermal energy to coagulate the lesions is no longer recommended due to risk of severe complications including bowel perforation.[11]
  • Photocoagulation: Uses Nd:YAG (neodymium:yttrium-aluminium-garnet) and argon laser for photoablation of the lesions. This technique is mainly used for gastric antral vascular ectasia. Disadvantages include risk of perforation, uneconomical, and requirement of specialist expertise.[12][13]
  • Endoscopic clips: Endoclips can be used to obliterate the feeder vessels in large colonic lesions to achieve mechanical hemostasis. Subsequent cauterization with APC is helpful to prevent re-bleeding.[14]
  • Endoscopic ligation: Endoscopic band ligation is a safe and effective method to achieve hemostasis in acute non-variceal upper GI bleeding. Long-term efficacy is currently not known.[15][16][17]

Transcatheter Angiography and Intervention (TAI)

  • This method is used for patients who fail endoscopic therapy or who are not good surgical candidates. This method can also be used to localize the site of active bleeding prior to surgery.
  • Embolization is now preferred over local vasoconstrictive therapy with vasopressin infusion due to high risk of ischemia.[18]
  • Superselective catheterization and subsequent transcatheter embolization with gelatine sponges and microcoils is currently the most effective means to control actively bleeding angiodysplastic lesions.[19]

References

  1. ↑ Junquera F, Feu F, Papo M, Videla S, Armengol JR, Bordas JM; et al. (2001). "A multicenter, randomized, clinical trial of hormonal therapy in the prevention of rebleeding from gastrointestinal angiodysplasia". Gastroenterology. 121 (5): 1073–9. doi:10.1053/gast.2001.28650. PMID 11677198.
  2. ↑ Bronner MH, Pate MB, Cunningham JT, Marsh WH (1986). "Estrogen-progesterone therapy for bleeding gastrointestinal telangiectasias in chronic renal failure. An uncontrolled trial". Ann Intern Med. 105 (3): 371–4. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-105-3-371. PMID 3488703.
  3. ↑ Chen HM, Ge ZZ, Liu WZ, Lu H, Xu CH, Fang JY; et al. (2009). "[The mechanisms of thalidomide in treatment of angiodysplasia due to hypoxia]". Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi. 48 (4): 295–8. PMID 19576118.
  4. ↑ Heidt J, Langers AM, van der Meer FJ, Brouwer RE (2006). "Thalidomide as treatment for digestive tract angiodysplasias". Neth J Med. 64 (11): 425–8. PMID 17179574.
  5. ↑ Almadi M, Ghali PM, Constantin A, Galipeau J, Szilagyi A (2009). "Recurrent obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: dilemmas and success with pharmacological therapies. Case series and review". Can J Gastroenterol. 23 (9): 625–31. doi:10.1155/2009/862816. PMC 2776553. PMID 19816627.
  6. ↑ Kamalaporn P, Saravanan R, Cirocco M, May G, Kortan P, Kandel G; et al. (2009). "Thalidomide for the treatment of chronic gastrointestinal bleeding from angiodysplasias: a case series". Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 21 (12): 1347–50. doi:10.1097/MEG.0b013e32832c9346. PMID 19730385.
  7. ↑ Bauditz J, Lochs H, Voderholzer W (2006). "Macroscopic appearance of intestinal angiodysplasias under antiangiogenic treatment with thalidomide". Endoscopy. 38 (10): 1036–9. doi:10.1055/s-2006-944829. PMID 17058171.
  8. ↑ Orsi P, Guatti-Zuliani C, Okolicsanyi L (2001). "Long-acting octreotide is effective in controlling rebleeding angiodysplasia of the gastrointestinal tract". Dig Liver Dis. 33 (4): 330–4. doi:10.1016/s1590-8658(01)80087-6. PMID 11432511.
  9. ↑ Vargo JJ (2004). "Clinical applications of the argon plasma coagulator". Gastrointest Endosc. 59 (1): 81–8. doi:10.1016/s0016-5107(03)02296-x. PMID 14722558.
  10. ↑ Suzuki N, Arebi N, Saunders BP (2006). "A novel method of treating colonic angiodysplasia". Gastrointest Endosc. 64 (3): 424–7. doi:10.1016/j.gie.2006.04.032. PMID 16923494.
  11. ↑ Asge Technology Committee. Conway JD, Adler DG, Diehl DL, Farraye FA, Kantsevoy SV; et al. (2009). "Endoscopic hemostatic devices". Gastrointest Endosc. 69 (6): 987–96. doi:10.1016/j.gie.2008.12.251. PMID 19410037.
  12. ↑ Selinger RR, McDonald GB, Hockenbery DM, Steinbach G, Kimmey MB (2006). "Efficacy of neodymium:YAG laser therapy for gastric antral vascular ectasia (GAVE) following hematopoietic cell transplant". Bone Marrow Transplant. 37 (2): 191–7. doi:10.1038/sj.bmt.1705212. PMID 16284614.
  13. ↑ Gostout CJ, Bowyer BA, Ahlquist DA, Viggiano TR, Balm RK (1988). "Mucosal vascular malformations of the gastrointestinal tract: clinical observations and results of endoscopic neodymium: yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser therapy". Mayo Clin Proc. 63 (10): 993–1003. doi:10.1016/s0025-6196(12)64914-3. PMID 3262793.
  14. ↑ Pishvaian AC, Lewis JH (2006). "Use of endoclips to obliterate a colonic arteriovenous malformation before cauterization". Gastrointest Endosc. 63 (6): 865–6. doi:10.1016/j.gie.2005.10.020. PMID 16650560.
  15. ↑ Ertekin C, Taviloglu K, Barbaros U, Guloglu R, Dolay K (2002). "Endoscopic band ligation: alternative treatment method in nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage". J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A. 12 (1): 41–5. doi:10.1089/109264202753486911. PMID 11905861.
  16. ↑ Matsui S, Kamisako T, Kudo M, Inoue R (2002). "Endoscopic band ligation for control of nonvariceal upper GI hemorrhage: comparison with bipolar electrocoagulation". Gastrointest Endosc. 55 (2): 214–8. doi:10.1067/mge.2002.121337. PMID 11818925.
  17. ↑ Junquera F, Brullet E, Campo R, Calvet X, Puig-Diví V, Vergara M (2003). "Usefulness of endoscopic band ligation for bleeding small bowel vascular lesions". Gastrointest Endosc. 58 (2): 274–9. doi:10.1067/mge.2003.357. PMID 12872104.
  18. ↑ Funaki B (2002). "Endovascular intervention for the treatment of acute arterial gastrointestinal hemorrhage". Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 31 (3): 701–13. doi:10.1016/s0889-8553(02)00025-0. PMID 12481726.
  19. ↑ Walker TG (2009). "Acute gastrointestinal hemorrhage". Tech Vasc Interv Radiol. 12 (2): 80–91. doi:10.1053/j.tvir.2009.08.002. PMID 19853226.

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