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Latest revision as of 20:55, 1 December 2022

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Anahita Deylamsalehi, M.D.[2]

Synonyms and keywords: COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders

Overview

In November 2019, the new coronavirus (COVID-19) was detected in Wuhan in the Hubei state of China for the first time. By April 2020, stay-at-home advisories, or shelter-in-place policies were applied in 42 states of the United States affecting approximately 96% of the US population. Based on multiple studies done in early 2020, the number of internet searches for mental health symptoms have significantly increased and more people requested mental health services. Major depressive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, ADHD, mood swing, panic disorder, and psychosis were among numerous COVID-19-associated mental disorders that have been reported. The pathophysiology of COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders can be explained by the body's immunologic response to the virus or due to the psychological stressors such as isolation, loneliness, stigma, concerns about infecting others, and fear of death. COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders must be differentiated from other diseases that cause sleep disorder, loss of appetite, altered mentation, agitation, and decreased energy. The prevalence of depression has more than doubled during the COVID-19 pandemic and the younger population were more vulnerable to develop psychiatric disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, studies reported that females are more commonly affected with COVID-19-related mental disorders than males. Ethnic and racial minorities were related to a higher rate of mental health difficulties during the COVID-19 pandemic. Having low income, being single, certain occupations such as medical workers and past medical history of mental or chronic underlying medical illness are some of the reported risk factors of COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders. The clinical presentations are strongly related to the type of the COVID-19-associated mental disorder. Appropriate treatment of the underlying COVID-19 infection is essential to address the inflammatory process due to the infection and also the fears of the patients. Moreover, standard treatments for each psychiatric disorder must be considered to control the symptoms.

Historical Perspective

In November 2019, the new coronavirus (COVID-19) was detected in Wuhan in the Hubei state of China for the first time.^[1]
By April 2020, stay-at-home advisories, or shelter-in-place policies have been applied in 42 states of the United States affecting no less than 316 million people (close to 96% of the US population).^[2]
Based on multiple studies done in early 2020, the number of internet searches for mental health symptoms had significantly increased. Furthermore, from the start of the pandemic, more people requested mental health services.^[3]

Classification

The following are COVID-19-associated mental disorders that have been reported:^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]

Pathophysiology

The pathophysiology of COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders can be explained by the body's immunologic response to the virus or due to the psychological stressors such as isolation, loneliness, stigma, concerns about infecting others, and fear of death.

Immunologic Response To the Virus

Respiratory viral diseases are associated with psychological disorders, which can be presented both acutely and chronically.^[5]
The coronavirus is a neurotropic virus and can cause mental disorder by affecting the central nervous system or via the immune system response.^[7]^[5]^[17]^[12]
Some data supported the role of inflammatory biomarkers from an infection on development of depression's symptoms such as anhedonia.^[18]

Psychological Trauma

Data from previous studies delineated the increased rate of mental disorders following major traumatic events such as natural disasters and pandemics.^[8]^[10]
The unknown nature of the virus within the first months, the uncertainty of its transmission route, and the high rate of hospitalization and mortality led to serious concern and distress among individuals.^[19]^[20]
Disruption of the routine day-to-day life due to strict quarantine measures, closing of schools, and cancelling all social events was one of the important determinants.^[8]
The following concerns were associated with a higher rate of psychiatric disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic:^[21]^[22]
- Fear of contracting the infection
- Fear of death due to the infection
- Misinformation regarding COVID-19
- Social distancing
- Economical difficulties
The role of reduced physical activity, increased screen time, irregular sleep patterns, and lack of interpersonal contacts has been related to mental disorders among children and adolescents who experienced the quarantine.^[20]

Side Effects of COVID-19 Treatment

Some of the medications used for COVID-19 treatment were known to cause neuropathic and neuropsychiatric side effects.^[23]^[24]

Causes

In November 2019, the new coronavirus (COVID-19) was detected in Wuhan in the Hubei state of China for the first time.^[1] Over the course of a few months, COVID-19 quickly spread globally and turned into a worldwide pandemic. Data on September 1st, 2020 (less than eleven months after the pandemic onset) reported 28 million confirmed cases and over 900,000 deaths globally. The number of confirmed cases and deaths on the same date were 6.4 million and 19,000 in the United States, respectively.^[25] The unknown nature of the virus within the first months, the uncertainty of its transmission route, and the high rate of hospitalization and mortality led to more concern and distress among individuals.^[19] To control the infection, numerous policies and strict quarantine measures were applied in the United States and other countries; schools were closed, all social events were canceled, people were advised to stay at home and work from home if possible and wear face masks. By April 2020, stay-at-home advisories, or shelter-in-place policies have been applied in 42 states of the United States affecting no less than 316 million people (close to 96% of the US population).^[2] As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic a chain of emotional issues developed among individuals, such as guilt, anxiety, loneliness, insomnia, stigma, helplessness, anger, despair, and fear.^[26]

Differentiating COVID-19-Associated Psychiatric Disorders from Other Diseases

COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders must be differentiated from other diseases that cause sleep disorder, loss of appetite, altered mentation, agitation and decreased energy, such as the followings:^[27]^[28]^[29]

The COVID-19 infection of the central nervous system such as encephalitis
Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder
Delirium
Acute cerebrovascular disease due to COVID-19 infection such as cerebral hemorrhage

Epidemiology and Demographics

Based on a large national study done in the United States, the prevalence of depression has more than doubled during the COVID-19 pandemic.^[30]
The prevalence of depression among adults older than 18 years old in the United States was estimated at 28.6%, only from April to May 2020. During this time, 8.4% of adults reported having suicidal ideation and 18.2% initiated or increased substance usage. Only three months later (September 2020) the rate of depression among American adults older than 18 years old raised to 33%, and the prevalence rate of suicidal ideation increased to 11.9% (Lee & Singh, 2021).^[31]
Based on some evidences, 0.9% to 4% of COVID-19 patients developed psychotic spectrum disorders.^[14]

Age

Patients of all age groups may develop mental disorder due to the COVID-19, nevertheless, younger population were more vulnerable to develop psychiatric disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic.^[1]^[8]^[30]^[20]^[22]
Based on a systematic review, mental disorder due to COVID-19 pandemic was higher in the age group of 21-40 years.^[19]
Another study which was done on 1,653 participants globally, suggested that the high rate of mental disorders among the younger population was related to poor sleep and loneliness of this population.^[3]

Gender

Females are more commonly affected with COVID-19-related mental disorders than male.^[32]^[1]^[8]^[20]^[22]
Supported by a study in Canada, young females are among the populations with a high prevalence of mental disorders during the pandemic.^[26]

Race

Ethnic and racial minorities were related to a higher rate of mental health difficulties during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on a large national study, Hispanics and African Americans had the highest rate of Depression in the United States, compared to other races.^[30]

Risk Factors

Common risk factors relating to COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders:^[26]^[1]^[31]^[25]^[8]^[33]^[34]^[6]^[35]^[20]^[36]^[37]^[21]^[38]

Economic status
- Economic inequalities have been known as a risk factor for mood disorders, such as depression, and the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated the economic issues of many people in the United States.^[39]
Marital status
- Being single (unmarried, living with parents, widow, or divorcee) is one of the factors associated with a higher rate of mental illnesses, such as depression, during the pandemic.
Level of education
- Based on some studies, a higher level of education has been related to a higher rate of anxiety due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
- In contrast, other studies in the United States confirmed a significant association between lower education and a higher rate of mental disorders due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
- A systematic review delineated that being a student is a risk factor associated with mental disorders.
Female gender
Certain occupations such as medical workers
Social media exposure
- Based on a study in China, more than two hours of exposure to COVID-19 news via social media was associated with a higher rate of depression.
History of a chronic underlying medical illness^[8]
History of previous mental disorder^[8]^[30]
Sever pain during the COVID-19 pandemic
Poor sleep
Having a relative with COVID-19
Prolonged hospitalization

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

The clinical presentations are strongly related to the type of the COVID-19-associated mental disorder.
As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic the following chain of emotional issues developed among individuals:^[26]^[8]
- Guilt
- Stress
- Loneliness
- Stigma
- Helplessness
- Anger
- Despair
- Fear of infecion
Behaviors such as substance abuse (such as smoking, overconsumption of alcohol, and drug abuse) has been increased during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.^[31]^[21]
If left untreated, complications such as suicide can occur.^[31]^[21]^[22]^[15]
Presence of some mental disorders such as bipolar disorder, unipolar depression and schizophrenia spectrum disorders was associated with poorer outcomes in COVID-19 patients.^[40]

Diagnostic Criteria

Diagnosis can be made if a psychiatric disorder associated to the COVID-19; either in a COVID-19 patient, or in an individual who lived during the COVID-19 pandemic has been observed.

History and Symptoms

Symptoms of the COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders depends on the type of mental disorder, nevertheless the following are some of the general observed symptoms:^[23]^[41]^[16]
- Anhedonia
- Sleep difficulty
- Reduced appetite
- Anxiety
- Lethargy
- Irritability
- Inattention

Physical Examination

Patients with COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders usually appear normal.

Laboratory Findings

There are no specific laboratory findings associated with COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders.

Electrocardiogram

There are no ECG findings associated with COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders.

X-ray

There are no x-ray findings associated with COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders.

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders.

CT scan

There are no CT scan findings associated with COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders.

MRI

There are no MRI findings associated with COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders.

Other Imaging Findings

There are no other imaging findings associated with COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders.

Other Diagnostic Studies

There are no other diagnostic studies associated with COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders.

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Appropriate treatment of the underlying COVID-19 infection is essential to address the inflammatory process due to the infection and also the fears of the patients.^[42]
Standard treatments for each psychiatric disorder also must be considered to control the symptoms. For instance, in a study on the COVID-19 associated psychosis, initiation of antipsychotics controlled the symptoms successfully.^[42]

Non-Medical Therapy

Telepsychiatry

Usage of telepsychiatry to deliver psychiatric care during the COVID-19 pandemic may help the populations who are at risk.^[37]
The talk-based nature of most psychiatric therapies makes utilizing technological means more convenient during the quarantine.^[37]
In addition, this method of psychiatric care can be utilized for group therapy as well.
A systematic review, reported that video teleconference groups and in-person groups were similar in their treatment outcomes.^[43]
Telepsychiatry is not feasible for certain cohorts of patients. The following may limit the use of telepsychiatry:^[37]
- Not having access to internet, smartphone or computer
- Less technologically literate patients
- Old age
- Patients with diminished cognition

Surgery

There is no surgical treatment for COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders

Prevention

Practiced by some countries, policies and interventions can help individuals to have a better mental health status during the COVID-19 pandemic. For instance Australia developed an initiative called "Better Access to Psychiatrists, Psychologists and General Practitioners through the Medicare Benefits Schedule (Better Access)" in order to provide psychological therapy sessions for patients suffering from mental disorders.^[21]
Proposing guidelines to provide an overview regarding the COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders for health care providers to improve their knowledge could also be helpful and has been practiced in some countries such as Singapore, India, China, and Malaysia.^[21]^[44]^[45]
Providing accurate and reliable information regarding the COVID-19 and demolishing false information by governments and public health authorities can reduce distress and may prevent the mental disorders related to COVID-19.^[19]
Assuring a proper supply of personal protective equipment, such as masks, and hand sanitizers to address the related concern of individuals during the pandemic.
Utilizing electronic devices and applications by public health authorities can ensure online access to a medical provider and can secure individuals from the stresses related to the availability of medical help.^[46]
Since financial issues were introduced as one of the most important factors associated with a higher rate of depression during the COVID-19 pandemic, financial supports such as unemployment insurance (UI) may be able to prevent depression among the population at risk.^[47]
Governments and public health authorities can use text messages or computer-based interventions, telehealth services, and mass media campaigns to decrease the risk of mental disorders among the population at risk.^[30]
One of the protective factors for depression during the pandemic was to construct a daily routine, including regular exercises and appropriate sleep, which can be practiced individually.^[3]

References

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↑ Vindegaard N, Benros ME (2020). "COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: Systematic review of the current evidence". Brain Behav Immun. 89: 531–542. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.048. PMC 7260522 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32485289 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ Zhou SJ, Zhang LG, Wang LL, Guo ZC, Wang JQ, Chen JC; et al. (2020). "Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of psychological health problems in Chinese adolescents during the outbreak of COVID-19". Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 29 (6): 749–758. doi:10.1007/s00787-020-01541-4. PMC 7196181 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32363492 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ ^37.0 ^37.1 ^37.2 ^37.3 O'Brien M, McNicholas F (2020). "The use of telepsychiatry during COVID-19 and beyond". Ir J Psychol Med. 37 (4): 250–255. doi:10.1017/ipm.2020.54. PMC 7411439 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32434596 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ Zhang C, Yang L, Liu S, Ma S, Wang Y, Cai Z; et al. (2020). "Survey of Insomnia and Related Social Psychological Factors Among Medical Staff Involved in the 2019 Novel Coronavirus Disease Outbreak". Front Psychiatry. 11: 306. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00306. PMC 7171048 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32346373 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ Kujawa A, Green H, Compas BE, Dickey L, Pegg S (2020). "Exposure to COVID-19 pandemic stress: Associations with depression and anxiety in emerging adults in the United States". Depress Anxiety. 37 (12): 1280–1288. doi:10.1002/da.23109. PMID 33169481 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ Barcella CA, Polcwiartek C, Mohr GH, Hodges G, Søndergaard K, Niels Bang C; et al. (2021). "Severe mental illness is associated with increased mortality and severe course of COVID-19". Acta Psychiatr Scand. 144 (1): 82–91. doi:10.1111/acps.13309. PMC 8250986 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33894064 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ Jiao WY, Wang LN, Liu J, Fang SF, Jiao FY, Pettoello-Mantovani M; et al. (2020). "Behavioral and Emotional Disorders in Children during the COVID-19 Epidemic". J Pediatr. 221: 264–266.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.03.013. PMC 7127630 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32248989 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ ^42.0 ^42.1 Ferrando SJ, Klepacz L, Lynch S, Tavakkoli M, Dornbush R, Baharani R; et al. (2020). "COVID-19 Psychosis: A Potential New Neuropsychiatric Condition Triggered by Novel Coronavirus Infection and the Inflammatory Response?". Psychosomatics. 61 (5): 551–555. doi:10.1016/j.psym.2020.05.012. PMC 7236749 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32593479 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ Gentry MT, Lapid MI, Clark MM, Rummans TA (2019). "Evidence for telehealth group-based treatment: A systematic review". J Telemed Telecare. 25 (6): 327–342. doi:10.1177/1357633X18775855. PMID 29788807.
↑ Dandona R, Sagar R (2021). "COVID-19 offers an opportunity to reform mental health in India". Lancet Psychiatry. 8 (1): 9–11. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30493-4. PMID 33341174 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ Lim WP, Seet XY, Rahman H (2020). "Designing a psychological preparedness toolkit for healthcare workers in the wake of COVID-19: A Singapore perspective". Asian J Psychiatr. 53: 102204. doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102204. PMC 7286254 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32544820 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ Wang Y, Di Y, Ye J, Wei W (2021). "Study on the public psychological states and its related factors during the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in some regions of China". Psychol Health Med. 26 (1): 13–22. doi:10.1080/13548506.2020.1746817. PMID 32223317 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ Berkowitz SA, Basu S (2021). "Unemployment Insurance, Health-Related Social Needs, Health Care Access, and Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic". JAMA Intern Med. 181 (5): 699–702. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.7048. PMC 8094006 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33252615 Check |pmid= value (help).

Template:WS Template:WH

[pmid32605422-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 ^1.3 ^1.4 Ustun G (2021). "Determining depression and related factors in a society affected by COVID-19 pandemic". Int J Soc Psychiatry. 67 (1): 54–63. doi:10.1177/0020764020938807. PMC 7331110 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32605422 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32876685-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Ettman CK, Abdalla SM, Cohen GH, Sampson L, Vivier PM, Galea S (2020). "Prevalence of Depression Symptoms in US Adults Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic". JAMA Netw Open. 3 (9): e2019686. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.19686. PMC 7489837 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32876685 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33373680-3] 3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 Varma P, Junge M, Meaklim H, Jackson ML (2021). "Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: A global cross-sectional survey". Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 109: 110236. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110236. PMC 7834119 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33373680 Check |pmid= value (help).

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[pmid33093946-8] 8.0 ^8.1 ^8.2 ^8.3 ^8.4 ^8.5 ^8.6 ^8.7 ^8.8 Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L; et al. (2020). "Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review". F1000Res. 9: 636. doi:10.12688/f1000research.24457.1. PMC 7549174 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33093946 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32784244-9] Smith CM, Komisar JR, Mourad A, Kincaid BR (2020). "COVID-19-associated brief psychotic disorder". BMJ Case Rep. 13 (8). doi:10.1136/bcr-2020-236940. PMC 7418683 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32784244 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33004166-10] 10.0 ^10.1 Raudenská J, Steinerová V, Javůrková A, Urits I, Kaye AD, Viswanath O; et al. (2020). "Occupational burnout syndrome and post-traumatic stress among healthcare professionals during the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic". Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 34 (3): 553–560. doi:10.1016/j.bpa.2020.07.008. PMC 7367798 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33004166 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33296149-11] Horn M, Wathelet M, Fovet T, Amad A, Vuotto F, Faure K; et al. (2020). "Is COVID-19 Associated With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?". J Clin Psychiatry. 82 (1). doi:10.4088/JCP.20m13641. PMID 33296149 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid34000140-12] 12.0 ^12.1 Uvais NA (2021). "COVID-19-Associated Panic Disorder". Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 23 (1). doi:10.4088/PCC.20l02826. PMID 34000140 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid34456621-13] Richter K, Kellner S (2021). "["Coronasomnia"-promoting resilience through insomnia treatment]". Somnologie (Berl): 1–5. doi:10.1007/s11818-021-00322-8. PMC 8381348 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 34456621 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid34795193-14] 14.0 ^14.1 Borovina T, Mastelić T, Glavina G, Glavina T (2021). "COVID-19 Associated Psychotic Disorder with Suicidal Behaviour - Case Report". Psychiatr Danub. 33 (3): 421–424. doi:10.24869/psyd.2021.421. PMID 34795193 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33158555-15] 15.0 ^15.1 Ferrando SJ, Klepacz L, Lynch S, Shahar S, Dornbush R, Smiley A; et al. (2021). "Psychiatric emergencies during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic in the suburban New York City area". J Psychiatr Res. 136: 552–559. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.10.029. PMC 7992036 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33158555 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32272480-16] 16.0 ^16.1 Zhang WR, Wang K, Yin L, Zhao WF, Xue Q, Peng M; et al. (2020). "Mental Health and Psychosocial Problems of Medical Health Workers during the COVID-19 Epidemic in China". Psychother Psychosom. 89 (4): 242–250. doi:10.1159/000507639. PMC 7206349 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32272480 Check |pmid= value (help).

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[pmid32631403-19] 19.0 ^19.1 ^19.2 ^19.3 Salari N, Hosseinian-Far A, Jalali R, Vaisi-Raygani A, Rasoulpoor S, Mohammadi M; et al. (2020). "Prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Global Health. 16 (1): 57. doi:10.1186/s12992-020-00589-w. PMC 7338126 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32631403 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid34805060-20] 20.0 ^20.1 ^20.2 ^20.3 ^20.4 Gilsbach S, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K (2021). "Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children and Adolescents With and Without Mental Disorders". Front Public Health. 9: 679041. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.679041. PMC 8602182 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 34805060 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid34308673-21] 21.0 ^21.1 ^21.2 ^21.3 ^21.4 ^21.5 Samy AL, Awang Bono S, Tan SL, Low WY (2021). "Mental Health and COVID-19: Policies, Guidelines, and Initiatives from the Asia-Pacific Region". Asia Pac J Public Health. 33 (8): 839–846. doi:10.1177/10105395211025901. PMID 34308673 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33224080-22] 22.0 ^22.1 ^22.2 ^22.3 Rodríguez-Hidalgo AJ, Pantaleón Y, Dios I, Falla D (2020). "Fear of COVID-19, Stress, and Anxiety in University Undergraduate Students: A Predictive Model for Depression". Front Psychol. 11: 591797. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.591797. PMC 7674167 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33224080 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33618441-23] 23.0 ^23.1 Soltani S, Tabibzadeh A, Zakeri A, Zakeri AM, Latifi T, Shabani M; et al. (2021). "COVID-19 associated central nervous system manifestations, mental and neurological symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Rev Neurosci. 32 (3): 351–361. doi:10.1515/revneuro-2020-0108. PMID 33618441 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid12761728-24] Russo MW, Fried MW (2003). "Side effects of therapy for chronic hepatitis C." Gastroenterology. 124 (6): 1711–9. doi:10.1016/s0016-5085(03)00394-9. PMID 12761728.

[pmid33087382-25] 25.0 ^25.1 Firew T, Sano ED, Lee JW, Flores S, Lang K, Salman K; et al. (2020). "Protecting the front line: a cross-sectional survey analysis of the occupational factors contributing to healthcare workers' infection and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic in the USA". BMJ Open. 10 (10): e042752. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042752. PMC 7580061 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33087382 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33348199-26] 26.0 ^26.1 ^26.2 ^26.3 McQuaid RJ, Cox SML, Ogunlana A, Jaworska N (2021). "The burden of loneliness: Implications of the social determinants of health during COVID-19". Psychiatry Res. 296: 113648. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113648. PMID 33348199 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33192989-27] Yang H, Chi Y, Chen Z, Fan Y, Wu H, Hu X; et al. (2020). "Differential Diagnosis and Hospital Emergency Management for Fastlane Treatment of Central Nervous System Infection Under the COVID-19 Epidemic in Changsha, China". Front Neurol. 11: 555202. doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.555202. PMC 7606862 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33192989 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32454137-28] Panariello A, Bassetti R, Radice A, Rossotti R, Puoti M, Corradin M; et al. (2020). "Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis in a psychiatric Covid-19 patient: A case report". Brain Behav Immun. 87: 179–181. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.054. PMC 7255176 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32454137 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32379592-29] Li J, Long X, Zhang Q, Fang X, Fang F, Lv X; et al. (2021). "Emerging Evidence for Neuropsycho-Consequences of COVID-19". Curr Neuropharmacol. 19 (1): 92–96. doi:10.2174/1570159X18666200507085335. PMC 7903490 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32379592 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33426559-30] 30.0 ^30.1 ^30.2 ^30.3 ^30.4 Khubchandani J, Sharma S, Webb FJ, Wiblishauser MJ, Bowman SL (2021). "Post-lockdown depression and anxiety in the USA during the COVID-19 pandemic". J Public Health (Oxf). 43 (2): 246–253. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdaa250. PMC 7928742 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33426559 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid34358622-31] 31.0 ^31.1 ^31.2 ^31.3 Lee H, Singh GK (2021). "Monthly trends in self-reported health status and depression by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status during the COVID-19 Pandemic, United States, April 2020 - May 2021". Ann Epidemiol. 63: 52–62. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.07.014. PMC 8435379 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 34358622 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32334409-32] Moghanibashi-Mansourieh A (2020). "Assessing the anxiety level of Iranian general population during COVID-19 outbreak". Asian J Psychiatr. 51: 102076. doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102076. PMC 7165107 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32334409 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33175894-33] Kämpfen F, Kohler IV, Ciancio A, Bruine de Bruin W, Maurer J, Kohler HP (2020). "Predictors of mental health during the Covid-19 pandemic in the US: Role of economic concerns, health worries and social distancing". PLoS One. 15 (11): e0241895. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0241895. PMC 7657497 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33175894 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32365044-34] Ni MY, Yang L, Leung CMC, Li N, Yao XI, Wang Y; et al. (2020). "Mental Health, Risk Factors, and Social Media Use During the COVID-19 Epidemic and Cordon Sanitaire Among the Community and Health Professionals in Wuhan, China: Cross-Sectional Survey". JMIR Ment Health. 7 (5): e19009. doi:10.2196/19009. PMC 7219721 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32365044 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32485289-35] Vindegaard N, Benros ME (2020). "COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: Systematic review of the current evidence". Brain Behav Immun. 89: 531–542. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.048. PMC 7260522 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32485289 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32363492-36] Zhou SJ, Zhang LG, Wang LL, Guo ZC, Wang JQ, Chen JC; et al. (2020). "Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of psychological health problems in Chinese adolescents during the outbreak of COVID-19". Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 29 (6): 749–758. doi:10.1007/s00787-020-01541-4. PMC 7196181 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32363492 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32434596-37] 37.0 ^37.1 ^37.2 ^37.3 O'Brien M, McNicholas F (2020). "The use of telepsychiatry during COVID-19 and beyond". Ir J Psychol Med. 37 (4): 250–255. doi:10.1017/ipm.2020.54. PMC 7411439 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32434596 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32346373-38] Zhang C, Yang L, Liu S, Ma S, Wang Y, Cai Z; et al. (2020). "Survey of Insomnia and Related Social Psychological Factors Among Medical Staff Involved in the 2019 Novel Coronavirus Disease Outbreak". Front Psychiatry. 11: 306. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00306. PMC 7171048 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32346373 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33169481-39] Kujawa A, Green H, Compas BE, Dickey L, Pegg S (2020). "Exposure to COVID-19 pandemic stress: Associations with depression and anxiety in emerging adults in the United States". Depress Anxiety. 37 (12): 1280–1288. doi:10.1002/da.23109. PMID 33169481 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33894064-40] Barcella CA, Polcwiartek C, Mohr GH, Hodges G, Søndergaard K, Niels Bang C; et al. (2021). "Severe mental illness is associated with increased mortality and severe course of COVID-19". Acta Psychiatr Scand. 144 (1): 82–91. doi:10.1111/acps.13309. PMC 8250986 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33894064 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32248989-41] Jiao WY, Wang LN, Liu J, Fang SF, Jiao FY, Pettoello-Mantovani M; et al. (2020). "Behavioral and Emotional Disorders in Children during the COVID-19 Epidemic". J Pediatr. 221: 264–266.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.03.013. PMC 7127630 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32248989 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32593479-42] 42.0 ^42.1 Ferrando SJ, Klepacz L, Lynch S, Tavakkoli M, Dornbush R, Baharani R; et al. (2020). "COVID-19 Psychosis: A Potential New Neuropsychiatric Condition Triggered by Novel Coronavirus Infection and the Inflammatory Response?". Psychosomatics. 61 (5): 551–555. doi:10.1016/j.psym.2020.05.012. PMC 7236749 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32593479 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid29788807-43] Gentry MT, Lapid MI, Clark MM, Rummans TA (2019). "Evidence for telehealth group-based treatment: A systematic review". J Telemed Telecare. 25 (6): 327–342. doi:10.1177/1357633X18775855. PMID 29788807.

[pmid33341174-44] Dandona R, Sagar R (2021). "COVID-19 offers an opportunity to reform mental health in India". Lancet Psychiatry. 8 (1): 9–11. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30493-4. PMID 33341174 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32544820-45] Lim WP, Seet XY, Rahman H (2020). "Designing a psychological preparedness toolkit for healthcare workers in the wake of COVID-19: A Singapore perspective". Asian J Psychiatr. 53: 102204. doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102204. PMC 7286254 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32544820 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid32223317-46] Wang Y, Di Y, Ye J, Wei W (2021). "Study on the public psychological states and its related factors during the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in some regions of China". Psychol Health Med. 26 (1): 13–22. doi:10.1080/13548506.2020.1746817. PMID 32223317 Check |pmid= value (help).

[pmid33252615-47] Berkowitz SA, Basu S (2021). "Unemployment Insurance, Health-Related Social Needs, Health Care Access, and Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic". JAMA Intern Med. 181 (5): 699–702. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.7048. PMC 8094006 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 33252615 Check |pmid= value (help).

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@@ Line 12: / Line 12: @@
 ==Overview==
+In November 2019, the new [[coronavirus]] ([[COVID-19]]) was detected in Wuhan in the Hubei state of China for the first time. By April 2020, stay-at-home advisories, or shelter-in-place policies were applied in 42 states of the United States affecting approximately 96% of the US population. Based on multiple studies done in early 2020, the number of internet searches for [[mental health]] [[symptoms]] have significantly increased and more people requested [[mental health]] services. [[Major depressive disorder]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], [[anxiety]], [[ADHD]], [[mood swing]], [[panic disorder]], and [[psychosis]] were among numerous [[COVID-19]]-associated [[mental disorders]] that have been reported. The [[pathophysiology]] of [[COVID-19]]-associated [[mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]] can be explained by the body's [[immunlogy|immunologic response]] to the [[virus]] or due to the psychological stressors such as [[Isolation (health care)|isolation]], loneliness, stigma, concerns about [[infection|infecting]] others, and fear of death. [[COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders]] must be differentiated from other [[diseases]] that cause [[sleep]] disorder, [[anorexia|loss of appetite]], altered mentation, [[Psychomotor agitation|agitation]], and decreased [[energy]]. The [[prevalence]] of [[depression]] has more than doubled during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]] and the younger [[population]] were more vulnerable to develop [[mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]] during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]]. Furthermore, studies reported that [[females]] are more commonly affected with [[COVID-19]]-related [[Mental disorder|mental disorders]] than [[male]]s. [[Ethnic group|Ethnic]] and [[Ethnic group|racial minorities]] were related to a higher rate of [[Mental disorder|mental health difficulties]] during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]]. Having low income, being single, certain occupations such as medical workers and past [[medical history]] of mental or [[Chronic (medical)|chronic]] underlying [[illness|medical illness]] are some of the reported [[risk factors]] of [[COVID-19]]-associated [[mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]]. The clinical presentations are strongly related to the type of the [[COVID-19]]-associated [[mental disorder]]. Appropriate [[treatment]] of the underlying [[COVID-19]] [[infection]] is essential to address the [[inflammation|inflammatory process]] due to the [[infection]] and also the fears of the [[patients]]. Moreover, standard [[treatments]] for each [[Mental disorder|psychiatric disorder]] must be considered to control the [[symptoms]].
 ==Historical Perspective==
 *In November 2019, the new [[coronavirus]] ([[COVID-19]]) was detected in Wuhan in the Hubei state of China for the first time.<ref name="pmid32605422">{{cite journal| author=Ustun G| title=Determining depression and related factors in a society affected by COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=Int J Soc Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 67 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=32605422 | doi=10.1177/0020764020938807 | pmc=7331110 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32605422  }} </ref>
 *By April 2020, stay-at-home advisories, or shelter-in-place policies have been applied in 42 states of the United States affecting no less than 316 million people (close to 96% of the US population).<ref name="pmid32876685">{{cite journal| author=Ettman CK, Abdalla SM, Cohen GH, Sampson L, Vivier PM, Galea S| title=Prevalence of Depression Symptoms in US Adults Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic. | journal=JAMA Netw Open | year= 2020 | volume= 3 | issue= 9 | pages= e2019686 | pmid=32876685 | doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.19686 | pmc=7489837 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32876685  }} </ref>
-*Based on multiple studies done in early 2020, the number of internet searches for [[mental health]] [[symptoms]] has been significantly increased. Furthermore, from the start of the [[pandemic]], more people requested [[mental health]] services.<ref name="pmid33373680">{{cite journal| author=Varma P, Junge M, Meaklim H, Jackson ML| title=Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: A global cross-sectional survey. | journal=Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 109 | issue=  | pages= 110236 | pmid=33373680 | doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110236 | pmc=7834119 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33373680  }} </ref>
+*Based on multiple studies done in early 2020, the number of internet searches for [[mental health]] [[symptoms]] had significantly increased. Furthermore, from the start of the [[pandemic]], more people requested [[mental health]] services.<ref name="pmid33373680">{{cite journal| author=Varma P, Junge M, Meaklim H, Jackson ML| title=Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: A global cross-sectional survey. | journal=Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 109 | issue=  | pages= 110236 | pmid=33373680 | doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110236 | pmc=7834119 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33373680  }} </ref>
 ==Classification==
-The following are [[COVID-19]]-associated [[mental disorders]] that have been reported:<ref name="pmidCOVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders">{{cite journal| author=Halaris AE, Belendiuk KT, Freedman DX| title=Antidepressant drugs affect dopamine uptake. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 20 | pages= 1896-7 | pmid=COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders | doi=10.1016/0006-2952(75)90412-8 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32738287">{{cite journal| author=Mazza MG, De Lorenzo R, Conte C, Poletti S, Vai B, Bollettini I | display-authors=etal| title=Anxiety and depression in COVID-19 survivors: Role of inflammatory and clinical predictors. | journal=Brain Behav Immun | year= 2020 | volume= 89 | issue=  | pages= 594-600 | pmid=32738287 | doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2020.07.037 | pmc=7390748 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32738287  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33147504">{{cite journal| author=de Sousa Moreira JL, Barbosa SMB, Vieira JG, Chaves NCB, Felix EBG, Feitosa PWG | display-authors=etal| title=The psychiatric and neuropsychiatric repercussions associated with severe infections of COVID-19 and other coronaviruses. | journal=Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 106 | issue=  | pages= 110159 | pmid=33147504 | doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110159 | pmc=7605739 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33147504  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32732883">{{cite journal| author=Steardo L, Steardo L, Verkhratsky A| title=Psychiatric face of COVID-19. | journal=Transl Psychiatry | year= 2020 | volume= 10 | issue= 1 | pages= 261 | pmid=32732883 | doi=10.1038/s41398-020-00949-5 | pmc=7391235 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32732883  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32784244">{{cite journal| author=Smith CM, Komisar JR, Mourad A, Kincaid BR| title=COVID-19-associated brief psychotic disorder. | journal=BMJ Case Rep | year= 2020 | volume= 13 | issue= 8 | pages=  | pmid=32784244 | doi=10.1136/bcr-2020-236940 | pmc=7418683 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32784244  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33004166">{{cite journal| author=Raudenská J, Steinerová V, Javůrková A, Urits I, Kaye AD, Viswanath O | display-authors=etal| title=Occupational burnout syndrome and post-traumatic stress among healthcare professionals during the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. | journal=Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol | year= 2020 | volume= 34 | issue= 3 | pages= 553-560 | pmid=33004166 | doi=10.1016/j.bpa.2020.07.008 | pmc=7367798 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33004166  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33296149">{{cite journal| author=Horn M, Wathelet M, Fovet T, Amad A, Vuotto F, Faure K | display-authors=etal| title=Is COVID-19 Associated With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder? | journal=J Clin Psychiatry | year= 2020 | volume= 82 | issue= 1 | pages=  | pmid=33296149 | doi=10.4088/JCP.20m13641 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33296149  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34000140">{{cite journal| author=Uvais NA| title=COVID-19-Associated Panic Disorder. | journal=Prim Care Companion CNS Disord | year= 2021 | volume= 23 | issue= 1 | pages=  | pmid=34000140 | doi=10.4088/PCC.20l02826 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34000140  }} </ref>
+The following are [[COVID-19]]-associated [[mental disorders]] that have been reported:<ref name="pmidCOVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders">{{cite journal| author=Halaris AE, Belendiuk KT, Freedman DX| title=Antidepressant drugs affect dopamine uptake. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 20 | pages= 1896-7 | pmid=COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders | doi=10.1016/0006-2952(75)90412-8 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32738287">{{cite journal| author=Mazza MG, De Lorenzo R, Conte C, Poletti S, Vai B, Bollettini I | display-authors=etal| title=Anxiety and depression in COVID-19 survivors: Role of inflammatory and clinical predictors. | journal=Brain Behav Immun | year= 2020 | volume= 89 | issue=  | pages= 594-600 | pmid=32738287 | doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2020.07.037 | pmc=7390748 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32738287  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33147504">{{cite journal| author=de Sousa Moreira JL, Barbosa SMB, Vieira JG, Chaves NCB, Felix EBG, Feitosa PWG | display-authors=etal| title=The psychiatric and neuropsychiatric repercussions associated with severe infections of COVID-19 and other coronaviruses. | journal=Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 106 | issue=  | pages= 110159 | pmid=33147504 | doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110159 | pmc=7605739 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33147504  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32732883">{{cite journal| author=Steardo L, Steardo L, Verkhratsky A| title=Psychiatric face of COVID-19. | journal=Transl Psychiatry | year= 2020 | volume= 10 | issue= 1 | pages= 261 | pmid=32732883 | doi=10.1038/s41398-020-00949-5 | pmc=7391235 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32732883  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32784244">{{cite journal| author=Smith CM, Komisar JR, Mourad A, Kincaid BR| title=COVID-19-associated brief psychotic disorder. | journal=BMJ Case Rep | year= 2020 | volume= 13 | issue= 8 | pages=  | pmid=32784244 | doi=10.1136/bcr-2020-236940 | pmc=7418683 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32784244  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33004166">{{cite journal| author=Raudenská J, Steinerová V, Javůrková A, Urits I, Kaye AD, Viswanath O | display-authors=etal| title=Occupational burnout syndrome and post-traumatic stress among healthcare professionals during the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. | journal=Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol | year= 2020 | volume= 34 | issue= 3 | pages= 553-560 | pmid=33004166 | doi=10.1016/j.bpa.2020.07.008 | pmc=7367798 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33004166  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33296149">{{cite journal| author=Horn M, Wathelet M, Fovet T, Amad A, Vuotto F, Faure K | display-authors=etal| title=Is COVID-19 Associated With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder? | journal=J Clin Psychiatry | year= 2020 | volume= 82 | issue= 1 | pages=  | pmid=33296149 | doi=10.4088/JCP.20m13641 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33296149  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34000140">{{cite journal| author=Uvais NA| title=COVID-19-Associated Panic Disorder. | journal=Prim Care Companion CNS Disord | year= 2021 | volume= 23 | issue= 1 | pages=  | pmid=34000140 | doi=10.4088/PCC.20l02826 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34000140  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34456621">{{cite journal| author=Richter K, Kellner S| title=["Coronasomnia"-promoting resilience through insomnia treatment]. | journal=Somnologie (Berl) | year= 2021 | volume=  | issue=  | pages= 1-5 | pmid=34456621 | doi=10.1007/s11818-021-00322-8 | pmc=8381348 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34456621  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34795193">{{cite journal| author=Borovina T, Mastelić T, Glavina G, Glavina T| title=COVID-19 Associated Psychotic Disorder with Suicidal Behaviour - Case Report. | journal=Psychiatr Danub | year= 2021 | volume= 33 | issue= 3 | pages= 421-424 | pmid=34795193 | doi=10.24869/psyd.2021.421 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34795193  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33158555">{{cite journal| author=Ferrando SJ, Klepacz L, Lynch S, Shahar S, Dornbush R, Smiley A | display-authors=etal| title=Psychiatric emergencies during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic in the suburban New York City area. | journal=J Psychiatr Res | year= 2021 | volume= 136 | issue=  | pages= 552-559 | pmid=33158555 | doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.10.029 | pmc=7992036 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33158555  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32272480">{{cite journal| author=Zhang WR, Wang K, Yin L, Zhao WF, Xue Q, Peng M | display-authors=etal| title=Mental Health and Psychosocial Problems of Medical Health Workers during the COVID-19 Epidemic in China. | journal=Psychother Psychosom | year= 2020 | volume= 89 | issue= 4 | pages= 242-250 | pmid=32272480 | doi=10.1159/000507639 | pmc=7206349 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32272480  }} </ref>
 *[[Major depressive disorder|Depression]]
 *[[Post-traumatic stress disorder]]
@@ Line 42: / Line 45: @@
 ===Psychological Trauma===
 *Data from previous studies delineated the increased rate of [[mental disorders]] following major traumatic events such as natural disasters and [[pandemics]].<ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33004166">{{cite journal| author=Raudenská J, Steinerová V, Javůrková A, Urits I, Kaye AD, Viswanath O | display-authors=etal| title=Occupational burnout syndrome and post-traumatic stress among healthcare professionals during the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. | journal=Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol | year= 2020 | volume= 34 | issue= 3 | pages= 553-560 | pmid=33004166 | doi=10.1016/j.bpa.2020.07.008 | pmc=7367798 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33004166  }} </ref>
-*The unknown nature of the [[virus]] within the first months, the uncertainty of its [[Transmission (medicine)|transmission route]], and the high rate of [[hospital|hospitalization]] and [[mortality rate|mortality]] led to serious concern and distress among individuals.<ref name="pmid32631403">{{cite journal| author=Salari N, Hosseinian-Far A, Jalali R, Vaisi-Raygani A, Rasoulpoor S, Mohammadi M | display-authors=etal| title=Prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. | journal=Global Health | year= 2020 | volume= 16 | issue= 1 | pages= 57 | pmid=32631403 | doi=10.1186/s12992-020-00589-w | pmc=7338126 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32631403  }} </ref>
+*The unknown nature of the [[virus]] within the first months, the uncertainty of its [[Transmission (medicine)|transmission route]], and the high rate of [[hospital|hospitalization]] and [[mortality rate|mortality]] led to serious concern and distress among individuals.<ref name="pmid32631403">{{cite journal| author=Salari N, Hosseinian-Far A, Jalali R, Vaisi-Raygani A, Rasoulpoor S, Mohammadi M | display-authors=etal| title=Prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. | journal=Global Health | year= 2020 | volume= 16 | issue= 1 | pages= 57 | pmid=32631403 | doi=10.1186/s12992-020-00589-w | pmc=7338126 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32631403  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34805060">{{cite journal| author=Gilsbach S, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K| title=Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children and Adolescents With and Without Mental Disorders. | journal=Front Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 679041 | pmid=34805060 | doi=10.3389/fpubh.2021.679041 | pmc=8602182 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34805060  }} </ref>
 *Disruption of the routine day-to-day life due to strict [[quarantine]] measures, closing of schools, and cancelling all social events was one of the important determinants.<ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref>
+*The following concerns were associated with a higher rate of [[mental disorders|psychiatric disorders]] during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]]:<ref name="pmid34308673">{{cite journal| author=Samy AL, Awang Bono S, Tan SL, Low WY| title=Mental Health and COVID-19: Policies, Guidelines, and Initiatives from the Asia-Pacific Region. | journal=Asia Pac J Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 33 | issue= 8 | pages= 839-846 | pmid=34308673 | doi=10.1177/10105395211025901 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34308673  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33224080">{{cite journal| author=Rodríguez-Hidalgo AJ, Pantaleón Y, Dios I, Falla D| title=Fear of COVID-19, Stress, and Anxiety in University Undergraduate Students: A Predictive Model for Depression. | journal=Front Psychol | year= 2020 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 591797 | pmid=33224080 | doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.591797 | pmc=7674167 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33224080  }} </ref>
+**Fear of contracting the [[infection]]
+**Fear of death due to the [[infection]]
+**Misinformation regarding [[COVID-19]]
+**Social distancing
+**Economical difficulties
+*The role of reduced [[Physical exercise|physical activity]], increased screen time, irregular [[sleep]] patterns, and lack of interpersonal contacts has been related to [[mental disorders]] among [[child|children]] and adolescents who experienced the [[quarantine]].<ref name="pmid34805060">{{cite journal| author=Gilsbach S, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K| title=Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children and Adolescents With and Without Mental Disorders. | journal=Front Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 679041 | pmid=34805060 | doi=10.3389/fpubh.2021.679041 | pmc=8602182 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34805060  }} </ref>
+===Side Effects of COVID-19 Treatment===
+Some of the [[medications]] used for [[COVID-19]] [[treatment]] were known to cause [[Neuropathy|neuropathic]] and [[Neuropsychiatry|neuropsychiatric]] [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side effects]].<ref name="pmid33618441">{{cite journal| author=Soltani S, Tabibzadeh A, Zakeri A, Zakeri AM, Latifi T, Shabani M | display-authors=etal| title=COVID-19 associated central nervous system manifestations, mental and neurological symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. | journal=Rev Neurosci | year= 2021 | volume= 32 | issue= 3 | pages= 351-361 | pmid=33618441 | doi=10.1515/revneuro-2020-0108 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33618441  }} </ref><ref name="pmid12761728">{{cite journal| author=Russo MW, Fried MW| title=Side effects of therapy for chronic hepatitis C. | journal=Gastroenterology | year= 2003 | volume= 124 | issue= 6 | pages= 1711-9 | pmid=12761728 | doi=10.1016/s0016-5085(03)00394-9 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12761728  }} </ref>
+*[[Ribavirin]]
+*[[Interferon alpha]]
+*[[Chloroquine]]
+*[[Hydroxychloroquine]]
 ==Causes==
+In November 2019, the [[COVID-19|new coronavirus]] ([[COVID-19]]) was detected in Wuhan in the Hubei state of China for the first time.<ref name="pmid32605422">{{cite journal| author=Ustun G| title=Determining depression and related factors in a society affected by COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=Int J Soc Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 67 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=32605422 | doi=10.1177/0020764020938807 | pmc=7331110 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32605422  }} </ref> Over the course of a few months, [[COVID-19]] quickly spread globally and turned into a worldwide [[pandemic]]. Data on September 1st, 2020 (less than eleven months after the [[pandemic]] onset) reported 28 million confirmed cases and over 900,000 deaths globally. The number of confirmed cases and deaths on the same date were 6.4 million and 19,000 in the United States, respectively.<ref name="pmid33087382">{{cite journal| author=Firew T, Sano ED, Lee JW, Flores S, Lang K, Salman K | display-authors=etal| title=Protecting the front line: a cross-sectional survey analysis of the occupational factors contributing to healthcare workers' infection and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic in the USA. | journal=BMJ Open | year= 2020 | volume= 10 | issue= 10 | pages= e042752 | pmid=33087382 | doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042752 | pmc=7580061 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33087382  }} </ref> The unknown nature of the [[virus]] within the first months, the uncertainty of its [[Transmission (medicine)|transmission route]], and the high rate of [[hospital|hospitalization]] and [[mortality rate|mortality]] led to more concern and [[distress]] among individuals.<ref name="pmid32631403">{{cite journal| author=Salari N, Hosseinian-Far A, Jalali R, Vaisi-Raygani A, Rasoulpoor S, Mohammadi M | display-authors=etal| title=Prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. | journal=Global Health | year= 2020 | volume= 16 | issue= 1 | pages= 57 | pmid=32631403 | doi=10.1186/s12992-020-00589-w | pmc=7338126 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32631403  }} </ref> To control the [[infection]], numerous policies and strict [[quarantine]] measures were applied in the United States and other countries; schools were closed, all social events were canceled, people were advised to stay at home and work from home if possible and wear face masks. By April 2020, stay-at-home advisories, or shelter-in-place policies have been applied in 42 states of the United States affecting no less than 316 million people (close to 96% of the US population).<ref name="pmid32876685">{{cite journal| author=Ettman CK, Abdalla SM, Cohen GH, Sampson L, Vivier PM, Galea S| title=Prevalence of Depression Symptoms in US Adults Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic. | journal=JAMA Netw Open | year= 2020 | volume= 3 | issue= 9 | pages= e2019686 | pmid=32876685 | doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.19686 | pmc=7489837 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32876685  }} </ref> As a result of the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]] a chain of emotional issues developed among individuals, such as guilt, [[anxiety]], [[loneliness]], [[insomnia]], stigma, helplessness, anger, despair, and [[fear]].<ref name="pmid33348199">{{cite journal| author=McQuaid RJ, Cox SML, Ogunlana A, Jaworska N| title=The burden of loneliness: Implications of the social determinants of health during COVID-19. | journal=Psychiatry Res | year= 2021 | volume= 296 | issue=  | pages= 113648 | pmid=33348199 | doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113648 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33348199  }} </ref>
-==Differentiating [disease name] from other Diseases==
+==Differentiating COVID-19-Associated Psychiatric Disorders from Other Diseases==
+[[COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders]] must be differentiated from other [[diseases]] that cause [[sleep]] disorder, [[anorexia|loss of appetite]], altered mentation, [[Psychomotor agitation|agitation]] and decreased [[energy]], such as the followings:<ref name="pmid33192989">{{cite journal| author=Yang H, Chi Y, Chen Z, Fan Y, Wu H, Hu X | display-authors=etal| title=Differential Diagnosis and Hospital Emergency Management for Fastlane Treatment of Central Nervous System Infection Under the COVID-19 Epidemic in Changsha, China. | journal=Front Neurol | year= 2020 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 555202 | pmid=33192989 | doi=10.3389/fneur.2020.555202 | pmc=7606862 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33192989  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32454137">{{cite journal| author=Panariello A, Bassetti R, Radice A, Rossotti R, Puoti M, Corradin M | display-authors=etal| title=Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis in a psychiatric Covid-19 patient: A case report. | journal=Brain Behav Immun | year= 2020 | volume= 87 | issue=  | pages= 179-181 | pmid=32454137 | doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.054 | pmc=7255176 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32454137  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32379592">{{cite journal| author=Li J, Long X, Zhang Q, Fang X, Fang F, Lv X | display-authors=etal| title=Emerging Evidence for Neuropsycho-Consequences of COVID-19. | journal=Curr Neuropharmacol | year= 2021 | volume= 19 | issue= 1 | pages= 92-96 | pmid=32379592 | doi=10.2174/1570159X18666200507085335 | pmc=7903490 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32379592  }} </ref>
+*The [[COVID-19]] [[infection]] of the [[central nervous system]] such as [[encephalitis]]
+*Substance/[[medication]]-induced [[Major depressive disorder|depressive disorder]]
+*[[Delirium]]
+*[[stroke|Acute cerebrovascular disease]] due to [[COVID-19]] [[infection]] such as [[Intracranial hemorrhage|cerebral hemorrhage]]
 ==Epidemiology and Demographics==
 *Based on a large national study done in the United States, the [[prevalence]] of [[depression]] has more than doubled during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]].<ref name="pmid33426559">{{cite journal| author=Khubchandani J, Sharma S, Webb FJ, Wiblishauser MJ, Bowman SL| title=Post-lockdown depression and anxiety in the USA during the COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=J Public Health (Oxf) | year= 2021 | volume= 43 | issue= 2 | pages= 246-253 | pmid=33426559 | doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdaa250 | pmc=7928742 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33426559  }} </ref>
 *The [[prevalence]] of [[depression]] among adults older than 18 years old in the United States was estimated at 28.6%, only from April to May 2020. During this time, 8.4% of adults reported having [[suicide|suicidal ideation]] and 18.2% initiated or increased substance usage. Only three months later (September 2020) the rate of [[depression]] among American adults older than 18 years old raised to 33%, and the [[prevalence]] rate of [[suicide|suicidal ideation]] increased to 11.9% (Lee & Singh, 2021).<ref name="pmid34358622">{{cite journal| author=Lee H, Singh GK| title=Monthly trends in self-reported health status and depression by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status during the COVID-19 Pandemic, United States, April 2020 - May 2021. | journal=Ann Epidemiol | year= 2021 | volume= 63 | issue=  | pages= 52-62 | pmid=34358622 | doi=10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.07.014 | pmc=8435379 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34358622  }} </ref>
+*Based on some evidences, 0.9% to 4% of [[COVID-19]] [[patients]] developed [[psychosis|psychotic spectrum disorders]].<ref name="pmid34795193">{{cite journal| author=Borovina T, Mastelić T, Glavina G, Glavina T| title=COVID-19 Associated Psychotic Disorder with Suicidal Behaviour - Case Report. | journal=Psychiatr Danub | year= 2021 | volume= 33 | issue= 3 | pages= 421-424 | pmid=34795193 | doi=10.24869/psyd.2021.421 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34795193  }} </ref>
 ===Age===
-*[[Patients]] of all [[ageing|age]] groups may develop [[Mental disorder|mental disorder]] due to the [[COVID-19]], nevertheless, younger [[population]] were more vulnerable to develop [[mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]] during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]].<ref name="pmid32605422">{{cite journal| author=Ustun G| title=Determining depression and related factors in a society affected by COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=Int J Soc Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 67 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=32605422 | doi=10.1177/0020764020938807 | pmc=7331110 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32605422  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33426559">{{cite journal| author=Khubchandani J, Sharma S, Webb FJ, Wiblishauser MJ, Bowman SL| title=Post-lockdown depression and anxiety in the USA during the COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=J Public Health (Oxf) | year= 2021 | volume= 43 | issue= 2 | pages= 246-253 | pmid=33426559 | doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdaa250 | pmc=7928742 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33426559  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34805060">{{cite journal| author=Gilsbach S, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K| title=Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children and Adolescents With and Without Mental Disorders. | journal=Front Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 679041 | pmid=34805060 | doi=10.3389/fpubh.2021.679041 | pmc=8602182 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34805060  }} </ref>
+*[[Patients]] of all [[ageing|age]] groups may develop [[Mental disorder|mental disorder]] due to the [[COVID-19]], nevertheless, younger [[population]] were more vulnerable to develop [[mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]] during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]].<ref name="pmid32605422">{{cite journal| author=Ustun G| title=Determining depression and related factors in a society affected by COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=Int J Soc Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 67 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=32605422 | doi=10.1177/0020764020938807 | pmc=7331110 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32605422  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33426559">{{cite journal| author=Khubchandani J, Sharma S, Webb FJ, Wiblishauser MJ, Bowman SL| title=Post-lockdown depression and anxiety in the USA during the COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=J Public Health (Oxf) | year= 2021 | volume= 43 | issue= 2 | pages= 246-253 | pmid=33426559 | doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdaa250 | pmc=7928742 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33426559  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34805060">{{cite journal| author=Gilsbach S, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K| title=Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children and Adolescents With and Without Mental Disorders. | journal=Front Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 679041 | pmid=34805060 | doi=10.3389/fpubh.2021.679041 | pmc=8602182 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34805060  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33224080">{{cite journal| author=Rodríguez-Hidalgo AJ, Pantaleón Y, Dios I, Falla D| title=Fear of COVID-19, Stress, and Anxiety in University Undergraduate Students: A Predictive Model for Depression. | journal=Front Psychol | year= 2020 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 591797 | pmid=33224080 | doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.591797 | pmc=7674167 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33224080  }} </ref>
 *Based on a [[systematic review]], [[Mental disorder|mental disorder]] due to [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]] was higher in the [[ageing|age]] group of 21-40 years.<ref name="pmid32631403">{{cite journal| author=Salari N, Hosseinian-Far A, Jalali R, Vaisi-Raygani A, Rasoulpoor S, Mohammadi M | display-authors=etal| title=Prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. | journal=Global Health | year= 2020 | volume= 16 | issue= 1 | pages= 57 | pmid=32631403 | doi=10.1186/s12992-020-00589-w | pmc=7338126 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32631403  }} </ref>
-*Another study which was done on 1653 participants globally, suggested that the high rate of [[Mental disorder|mental disorders]] among the younger [[population]] was related to [[insomnia|poor sleep]] and [[loneliness]] of this [[population]].<ref name="pmid33373680">{{cite journal| author=Varma P, Junge M, Meaklim H, Jackson ML| title=Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: A global cross-sectional survey. | journal=Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 109 | issue=  | pages= 110236 | pmid=33373680 | doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110236 | pmc=7834119 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33373680  }} </ref>
+*Another study which was done on 1,653 participants globally, suggested that the high rate of [[Mental disorder|mental disorders]] among the younger [[population]] was related to [[insomnia|poor sleep]] and [[loneliness]] of this [[population]].<ref name="pmid33373680">{{cite journal| author=Varma P, Junge M, Meaklim H, Jackson ML| title=Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: A global cross-sectional survey. | journal=Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 109 | issue=  | pages= 110236 | pmid=33373680 | doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110236 | pmc=7834119 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33373680  }} </ref>
 ===Gender===
-*[[Females]] are more commonly affected with [[COVID-19]]-related [[Mental disorder|mental disorders]] than [[male]].<ref name="pmid32334409">{{cite journal| author=Moghanibashi-Mansourieh A| title=Assessing the anxiety level of Iranian general population during COVID-19 outbreak. | journal=Asian J Psychiatr | year= 2020 | volume= 51 | issue=  | pages= 102076 | pmid=32334409 | doi=10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102076 | pmc=7165107 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32334409  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32605422">{{cite journal| author=Ustun G| title=Determining depression and related factors in a society affected by COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=Int J Soc Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 67 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=32605422 | doi=10.1177/0020764020938807 | pmc=7331110 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32605422  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34805060">{{cite journal| author=Gilsbach S, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K| title=Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children and Adolescents With and Without Mental Disorders. | journal=Front Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 679041 | pmid=34805060 | doi=10.3389/fpubh.2021.679041 | pmc=8602182 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34805060  }} </ref>
+*[[Females]] are more commonly affected with [[COVID-19]]-related [[Mental disorder|mental disorders]] than [[male]].<ref name="pmid32334409">{{cite journal| author=Moghanibashi-Mansourieh A| title=Assessing the anxiety level of Iranian general population during COVID-19 outbreak. | journal=Asian J Psychiatr | year= 2020 | volume= 51 | issue=  | pages= 102076 | pmid=32334409 | doi=10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102076 | pmc=7165107 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32334409  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32605422">{{cite journal| author=Ustun G| title=Determining depression and related factors in a society affected by COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=Int J Soc Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 67 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=32605422 | doi=10.1177/0020764020938807 | pmc=7331110 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32605422  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34805060">{{cite journal| author=Gilsbach S, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K| title=Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children and Adolescents With and Without Mental Disorders. | journal=Front Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 679041 | pmid=34805060 | doi=10.3389/fpubh.2021.679041 | pmc=8602182 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34805060  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33224080">{{cite journal| author=Rodríguez-Hidalgo AJ, Pantaleón Y, Dios I, Falla D| title=Fear of COVID-19, Stress, and Anxiety in University Undergraduate Students: A Predictive Model for Depression. | journal=Front Psychol | year= 2020 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 591797 | pmid=33224080 | doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.591797 | pmc=7674167 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33224080  }} </ref>
 *Supported by a study in Canada, young [[females]] are among the [[populations]] with a high [[prevalence]] of [[Mental disorder|mental disorders]] during the [[pandemic]].<ref name="pmid33348199">{{cite journal| author=McQuaid RJ, Cox SML, Ogunlana A, Jaworska N| title=The burden of loneliness: Implications of the social determinants of health during COVID-19. | journal=Psychiatry Res | year= 2021 | volume= 296 | issue=  | pages= 113648 | pmid=33348199 | doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113648 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33348199  }} </ref>
@@ Line 65: / Line 89: @@
 ==Risk Factors==
-Common [[risk factors]] relating to [[COVID-19]]-associated [[mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]]:<ref name="pmid33348199">{{cite journal| author=McQuaid RJ, Cox SML, Ogunlana A, Jaworska N| title=The burden of loneliness: Implications of the social determinants of health during COVID-19. | journal=Psychiatry Res | year= 2021 | volume= 296 | issue=  | pages= 113648 | pmid=33348199 | doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113648 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33348199  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32605422">{{cite journal| author=Ustun G| title=Determining depression and related factors in a society affected by COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=Int J Soc Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 67 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=32605422 | doi=10.1177/0020764020938807 | pmc=7331110 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32605422  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34358622">{{cite journal| author=Lee H, Singh GK| title=Monthly trends in self-reported health status and depression by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status during the COVID-19 Pandemic, United States, April 2020 - May 2021. | journal=Ann Epidemiol | year= 2021 | volume= 63 | issue=  | pages= 52-62 | pmid=34358622 | doi=10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.07.014 | pmc=8435379 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34358622  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33087382">{{cite journal| author=Firew T, Sano ED, Lee JW, Flores S, Lang K, Salman K | display-authors=etal| title=Protecting the front line: a cross-sectional survey analysis of the occupational factors contributing to healthcare workers' infection and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic in the USA. | journal=BMJ Open | year= 2020 | volume= 10 | issue= 10 | pages= e042752 | pmid=33087382 | doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042752 | pmc=7580061 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33087382  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33175894">{{cite journal| author=Kämpfen F, Kohler IV, Ciancio A, Bruine de Bruin W, Maurer J, Kohler HP| title=Predictors of mental health during the Covid-19 pandemic in the US: Role of economic concerns, health worries and social distancing. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2020 | volume= 15 | issue= 11 | pages= e0241895 | pmid=33175894 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0241895 | pmc=7657497 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33175894  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32365044">{{cite journal| author=Ni MY, Yang L, Leung CMC, Li N, Yao XI, Wang Y | display-authors=etal| title=Mental Health, Risk Factors, and Social Media Use During the COVID-19 Epidemic and Cordon Sanitaire Among the Community and Health Professionals in Wuhan, China: Cross-Sectional Survey. | journal=JMIR Ment Health | year= 2020 | volume= 7 | issue= 5 | pages= e19009 | pmid=32365044 | doi=10.2196/19009 | pmc=7219721 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32365044  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33147504">{{cite journal| author=de Sousa Moreira JL, Barbosa SMB, Vieira JG, Chaves NCB, Felix EBG, Feitosa PWG | display-authors=etal| title=The psychiatric and neuropsychiatric repercussions associated with severe infections of COVID-19 and other coronaviruses. | journal=Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 106 | issue=  | pages= 110159 | pmid=33147504 | doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110159 | pmc=7605739 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33147504  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32485289">{{cite journal| author=Vindegaard N, Benros ME| title=COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: Systematic review of the current evidence. | journal=Brain Behav Immun | year= 2020 | volume= 89 | issue=  | pages= 531-542 | pmid=32485289 | doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.048 | pmc=7260522 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32485289  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34805060">{{cite journal| author=Gilsbach S, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K| title=Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children and Adolescents With and Without Mental Disorders. | journal=Front Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 679041 | pmid=34805060 | doi=10.3389/fpubh.2021.679041 | pmc=8602182 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34805060  }} </ref>
+Common [[risk factors]] relating to [[COVID-19]]-associated [[mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]]:<ref name="pmid33348199">{{cite journal| author=McQuaid RJ, Cox SML, Ogunlana A, Jaworska N| title=The burden of loneliness: Implications of the social determinants of health during COVID-19. | journal=Psychiatry Res | year= 2021 | volume= 296 | issue=  | pages= 113648 | pmid=33348199 | doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113648 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33348199  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32605422">{{cite journal| author=Ustun G| title=Determining depression and related factors in a society affected by COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=Int J Soc Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 67 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=32605422 | doi=10.1177/0020764020938807 | pmc=7331110 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32605422  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34358622">{{cite journal| author=Lee H, Singh GK| title=Monthly trends in self-reported health status and depression by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status during the COVID-19 Pandemic, United States, April 2020 - May 2021. | journal=Ann Epidemiol | year= 2021 | volume= 63 | issue=  | pages= 52-62 | pmid=34358622 | doi=10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.07.014 | pmc=8435379 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34358622  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33087382">{{cite journal| author=Firew T, Sano ED, Lee JW, Flores S, Lang K, Salman K | display-authors=etal| title=Protecting the front line: a cross-sectional survey analysis of the occupational factors contributing to healthcare workers' infection and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic in the USA. | journal=BMJ Open | year= 2020 | volume= 10 | issue= 10 | pages= e042752 | pmid=33087382 | doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042752 | pmc=7580061 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33087382  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33175894">{{cite journal| author=Kämpfen F, Kohler IV, Ciancio A, Bruine de Bruin W, Maurer J, Kohler HP| title=Predictors of mental health during the Covid-19 pandemic in the US: Role of economic concerns, health worries and social distancing. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2020 | volume= 15 | issue= 11 | pages= e0241895 | pmid=33175894 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0241895 | pmc=7657497 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33175894  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32365044">{{cite journal| author=Ni MY, Yang L, Leung CMC, Li N, Yao XI, Wang Y | display-authors=etal| title=Mental Health, Risk Factors, and Social Media Use During the COVID-19 Epidemic and Cordon Sanitaire Among the Community and Health Professionals in Wuhan, China: Cross-Sectional Survey. | journal=JMIR Ment Health | year= 2020 | volume= 7 | issue= 5 | pages= e19009 | pmid=32365044 | doi=10.2196/19009 | pmc=7219721 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32365044  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33147504">{{cite journal| author=de Sousa Moreira JL, Barbosa SMB, Vieira JG, Chaves NCB, Felix EBG, Feitosa PWG | display-authors=etal| title=The psychiatric and neuropsychiatric repercussions associated with severe infections of COVID-19 and other coronaviruses. | journal=Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 106 | issue=  | pages= 110159 | pmid=33147504 | doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110159 | pmc=7605739 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33147504  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32485289">{{cite journal| author=Vindegaard N, Benros ME| title=COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: Systematic review of the current evidence. | journal=Brain Behav Immun | year= 2020 | volume= 89 | issue=  | pages= 531-542 | pmid=32485289 | doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.048 | pmc=7260522 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32485289  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34805060">{{cite journal| author=Gilsbach S, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K| title=Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children and Adolescents With and Without Mental Disorders. | journal=Front Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 679041 | pmid=34805060 | doi=10.3389/fpubh.2021.679041 | pmc=8602182 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34805060  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32363492">{{cite journal| author=Zhou SJ, Zhang LG, Wang LL, Guo ZC, Wang JQ, Chen JC | display-authors=etal| title=Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of psychological health problems in Chinese adolescents during the outbreak of COVID-19. | journal=Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry | year= 2020 | volume= 29 | issue= 6 | pages= 749-758 | pmid=32363492 | doi=10.1007/s00787-020-01541-4 | pmc=7196181 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32363492  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32434596">{{cite journal| author=O'Brien M, McNicholas F| title=The use of telepsychiatry during COVID-19 and beyond. | journal=Ir J Psychol Med | year= 2020 | volume= 37 | issue= 4 | pages= 250-255 | pmid=32434596 | doi=10.1017/ipm.2020.54 | pmc=7411439 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32434596  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34308673">{{cite journal| author=Samy AL, Awang Bono S, Tan SL, Low WY| title=Mental Health and COVID-19: Policies, Guidelines, and Initiatives from the Asia-Pacific Region. | journal=Asia Pac J Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 33 | issue= 8 | pages= 839-846 | pmid=34308673 | doi=10.1177/10105395211025901 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34308673  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32346373">{{cite journal| author=Zhang C, Yang L, Liu S, Ma S, Wang Y, Cai Z | display-authors=etal| title=Survey of Insomnia and Related Social Psychological Factors Among Medical Staff Involved in the 2019 Novel Coronavirus Disease Outbreak. | journal=Front Psychiatry | year= 2020 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 306 | pmid=32346373 | doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00306 | pmc=7171048 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32346373  }} </ref>
 *Economic status
-**Economic inequalities have been known as a [[risk factor]] for mood disorders such as [[depression]] and the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]] exacerbated the economic issues of many people in the United States.<ref name="pmid33169481">{{cite journal| author=Kujawa A, Green H, Compas BE, Dickey L, Pegg S| title=Exposure to COVID-19 pandemic stress: Associations with depression and anxiety in emerging adults in the United States. | journal=Depress Anxiety | year= 2020 | volume= 37 | issue= 12 | pages= 1280-1288 | pmid=33169481 | doi=10.1002/da.23109 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33169481  }} </ref>
+**Economic inequalities have been known as a [[risk factor]] for mood disorders, such as [[depression]], and the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]] exacerbated the economic issues of many people in the United States.<ref name="pmid33169481">{{cite journal| author=Kujawa A, Green H, Compas BE, Dickey L, Pegg S| title=Exposure to COVID-19 pandemic stress: Associations with depression and anxiety in emerging adults in the United States. | journal=Depress Anxiety | year= 2020 | volume= 37 | issue= 12 | pages= 1280-1288 | pmid=33169481 | doi=10.1002/da.23109 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33169481  }} </ref>
 *Marital status
-**Being single (unmarried, living with parents, widow, or divorcee) is one of the factors associated with a higher rate of [[mental disorder|mental illnesses]] such as [[depression]] during the [[pandemic]].
+**Being single (unmarried, living with parents, widow, or divorcee) is one of the factors associated with a higher rate of [[mental disorder|mental illnesses]], such as [[depression]], during the [[pandemic]].
 *Level of [[education]]
-**Based on some studies, a higher level of [[education]] has been related to a higher rate of [[anxiety]] due to the [[COVID-19]].
+**Based on some studies, a higher level of [[education]] has been related to a higher rate of [[anxiety]] due to the [[COVID-19]] pandemic.
-**In contrast, other studies in the United States confirmed a significant association between lower [[education]] and a higher rate of [[mental disorders]] due to the [[COVID-19]].
+**In contrast, other studies in the United States confirmed a significant association between lower [[education]] and a higher rate of [[mental disorders]] due to the [[COVID-19]] pandemic.
+**A [[systematic review]] delineated that being a student is a [[risk factor]] associated with [[mental disorders]].
 *[[Female]] gender
 *Certain occupations such as medical workers
 *Social media exposure
-**Based on a study in China, more than two hours of exposure to the [[COVID-19]] news via social media was associated with a higher rate of [[depression]].
+**Based on a study in China, more than two hours of exposure to [[COVID-19]] news via social media was associated with a higher rate of [[depression]].
 *History of a [[Chronic (medical)|chronic]] underlying [[illness|medical illness]]<ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref>
 *History of previous [[mental disorder]]<ref name="pmid33093946">{{cite journal| author=Hossain MM, Tasnim S, Sultana A, Faizah F, Mazumder H, Zou L | display-authors=etal| title=Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: a review. | journal=F1000Res | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 636 | pmid=33093946 | doi=10.12688/f1000research.24457.1 | pmc=7549174 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33093946  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33426559">{{cite journal| author=Khubchandani J, Sharma S, Webb FJ, Wiblishauser MJ, Bowman SL| title=Post-lockdown depression and anxiety in the USA during the COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=J Public Health (Oxf) | year= 2021 | volume= 43 | issue= 2 | pages= 246-253 | pmid=33426559 | doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdaa250 | pmc=7928742 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33426559  }} </ref>
-*Sever [[pain]] during the [[COVID-19]]
+*Sever [[pain]] during the [[COVID-19]] pandemic
 *Poor [[sleep]]
 *Having a relative with [[COVID-19]]
@@ Line 95: / Line 120: @@
 **Despair
 **[[Fear]] of [[infecion]]
-*Behaviors such as substance usage has been increased during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]] in the United States.<ref name="pmid34358622">{{cite journal| author=Lee H, Singh GK| title=Monthly trends in self-reported health status and depression by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status during the COVID-19 Pandemic, United States, April 2020 - May 2021. | journal=Ann Epidemiol | year= 2021 | volume= 63 | issue=  | pages= 52-62 | pmid=34358622 | doi=10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.07.014 | pmc=8435379 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34358622  }} </ref>
+*Behaviors such as [[drug abuse|substance abuse]] (such as [[smoking]], overconsumption of [[alcohol]], and [[drug abuse]]) has been increased during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]] in the United States.<ref name="pmid34358622">{{cite journal| author=Lee H, Singh GK| title=Monthly trends in self-reported health status and depression by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status during the COVID-19 Pandemic, United States, April 2020 - May 2021. | journal=Ann Epidemiol | year= 2021 | volume= 63 | issue=  | pages= 52-62 | pmid=34358622 | doi=10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.07.014 | pmc=8435379 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34358622  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34308673">{{cite journal| author=Samy AL, Awang Bono S, Tan SL, Low WY| title=Mental Health and COVID-19: Policies, Guidelines, and Initiatives from the Asia-Pacific Region. | journal=Asia Pac J Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 33 | issue= 8 | pages= 839-846 | pmid=34308673 | doi=10.1177/10105395211025901 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34308673  }} </ref>
-*If left untreated, [[Complication (medicine)|complications]] such as [[suicide]] can occur.<ref name="pmid34358622">{{cite journal| author=Lee H, Singh GK| title=Monthly trends in self-reported health status and depression by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status during the COVID-19 Pandemic, United States, April 2020 - May 2021. | journal=Ann Epidemiol | year= 2021 | volume= 63 | issue=  | pages= 52-62 | pmid=34358622 | doi=10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.07.014 | pmc=8435379 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34358622  }} </ref>
+*If left untreated, [[Complication (medicine)|complications]] such as [[suicide]] can occur.<ref name="pmid34358622">{{cite journal| author=Lee H, Singh GK| title=Monthly trends in self-reported health status and depression by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status during the COVID-19 Pandemic, United States, April 2020 - May 2021. | journal=Ann Epidemiol | year= 2021 | volume= 63 | issue=  | pages= 52-62 | pmid=34358622 | doi=10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.07.014 | pmc=8435379 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34358622  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34308673">{{cite journal| author=Samy AL, Awang Bono S, Tan SL, Low WY| title=Mental Health and COVID-19: Policies, Guidelines, and Initiatives from the Asia-Pacific Region. | journal=Asia Pac J Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 33 | issue= 8 | pages= 839-846 | pmid=34308673 | doi=10.1177/10105395211025901 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34308673  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33224080">{{cite journal| author=Rodríguez-Hidalgo AJ, Pantaleón Y, Dios I, Falla D| title=Fear of COVID-19, Stress, and Anxiety in University Undergraduate Students: A Predictive Model for Depression. | journal=Front Psychol | year= 2020 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 591797 | pmid=33224080 | doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.591797 | pmc=7674167 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33224080  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33158555">{{cite journal| author=Ferrando SJ, Klepacz L, Lynch S, Shahar S, Dornbush R, Smiley A | display-authors=etal| title=Psychiatric emergencies during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic in the suburban New York City area. | journal=J Psychiatr Res | year= 2021 | volume= 136 | issue=  | pages= 552-559 | pmid=33158555 | doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.10.029 | pmc=7992036 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33158555  }} </ref>
 *Presence of some [[mental disorders]] such as [[bipolar disorder]], [[Major depressive disorder|unipolar depression]] and [[Schizophrenia|schizophrenia spectrum disorders]] was associated with poorer outcomes in [[COVID-19]] [[patients]].<ref name="pmid33894064">{{cite journal| author=Barcella CA, Polcwiartek C, Mohr GH, Hodges G, Søndergaard K, Niels Bang C | display-authors=etal| title=Severe mental illness is associated with increased mortality and severe course of COVID-19. | journal=Acta Psychiatr Scand | year= 2021 | volume= 144 | issue= 1 | pages= 82-91 | pmid=33894064 | doi=10.1111/acps.13309 | pmc=8250986 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33894064  }} </ref>
 ===Diagnostic Criteria===
@@ Line 102: / Line 127: @@
 === History and Symptoms ===
-*[[Symptoms]] of the [[COVID-19]]-associated [[Mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]] depends on the type of [[mental disorder]], nevertheless the following are some of the general observed [[symptoms]]:<ref name="pmid32248989">{{cite journal| author=Jiao WY, Wang LN, Liu J, Fang SF, Jiao FY, Pettoello-Mantovani M | display-authors=etal| title=Behavioral and Emotional Disorders in Children during the COVID-19 Epidemic. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 2020 | volume= 221 | issue=  | pages= 264-266.e1 | pmid=32248989 | doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.03.013 | pmc=7127630 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32248989  }} </ref>
+*[[Symptoms]] of the [[COVID-19]]-associated [[Mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]] depends on the type of [[mental disorder]], nevertheless the following are some of the general observed [[symptoms]]:<ref name="pmid33618441">{{cite journal| author=Soltani S, Tabibzadeh A, Zakeri A, Zakeri AM, Latifi T, Shabani M | display-authors=etal| title=COVID-19 associated central nervous system manifestations, mental and neurological symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. | journal=Rev Neurosci | year= 2021 | volume= 32 | issue= 3 | pages= 351-361 | pmid=33618441 | doi=10.1515/revneuro-2020-0108 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33618441  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32248989">{{cite journal| author=Jiao WY, Wang LN, Liu J, Fang SF, Jiao FY, Pettoello-Mantovani M | display-authors=etal| title=Behavioral and Emotional Disorders in Children during the COVID-19 Epidemic. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 2020 | volume= 221 | issue=  | pages= 264-266.e1 | pmid=32248989 | doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.03.013 | pmc=7127630 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32248989  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32272480">{{cite journal| author=Zhang WR, Wang K, Yin L, Zhao WF, Xue Q, Peng M | display-authors=etal| title=Mental Health and Psychosocial Problems of Medical Health Workers during the COVID-19 Epidemic in China. | journal=Psychother Psychosom | year= 2020 | volume= 89 | issue= 4 | pages= 242-250 | pmid=32272480 | doi=10.1159/000507639 | pmc=7206349 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32272480  }} </ref>
 **[[Anhedonia]]
 **[[Sleep]] difficulty
@@ Line 129: / Line 154: @@
 ===Other Diagnostic Studies===
 There are no other [[diagnosis|diagnostic]] studies associated with [[COVID-19]]-associated [[Mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]].
+== Treatment ==
+=== Medical Therapy ===
+*Appropriate [[treatment]] of the underlying [[COVID-19]] [[infection]] is essential to address the [[inflammation|inflammatory process]] due to the [[infection]] and also the fears of the [[patients]].<ref name="pmid32593479">{{cite journal| author=Ferrando SJ, Klepacz L, Lynch S, Tavakkoli M, Dornbush R, Baharani R | display-authors=etal| title=COVID-19 Psychosis: A Potential New Neuropsychiatric Condition Triggered by Novel Coronavirus Infection and the Inflammatory Response? | journal=Psychosomatics | year= 2020 | volume= 61 | issue= 5 | pages= 551-555 | pmid=32593479 | doi=10.1016/j.psym.2020.05.012 | pmc=7236749 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32593479  }} </ref>
+*Standard [[treatments]] for each [[Mental disorder|psychiatric disorder]] also must be considered to control the [[symptoms]]. For instance, in a study on the [[COVID-19]] associated [[psychosis]], initiation of [[antipsychotics]] controlled the [[symptoms]] successfully.<ref name="pmid32593479">{{cite journal| author=Ferrando SJ, Klepacz L, Lynch S, Tavakkoli M, Dornbush R, Baharani R | display-authors=etal| title=COVID-19 Psychosis: A Potential New Neuropsychiatric Condition Triggered by Novel Coronavirus Infection and the Inflammatory Response? | journal=Psychosomatics | year= 2020 | volume= 61 | issue= 5 | pages= 551-555 | pmid=32593479 | doi=10.1016/j.psym.2020.05.012 | pmc=7236749 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32593479  }} </ref>
+===Non-Medical Therapy===
+====Telepsychiatry====
+*Usage of telepsychiatry to deliver [[Psychiatry|psychiatric care]] during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]] may help the populations who are at risk.<ref name="pmid32434596">{{cite journal| author=O'Brien M, McNicholas F| title=The use of telepsychiatry during COVID-19 and beyond. | journal=Ir J Psychol Med | year= 2020 | volume= 37 | issue= 4 | pages= 250-255 | pmid=32434596 | doi=10.1017/ipm.2020.54 | pmc=7411439 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32434596  }} </ref>
+*The talk-based nature of most [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] [[therapy|therapies]] makes utilizing technological means more convenient during the [[quarantine]].<ref name="pmid32434596">{{cite journal| author=O'Brien M, McNicholas F| title=The use of telepsychiatry during COVID-19 and beyond. | journal=Ir J Psychol Med | year= 2020 | volume= 37 | issue= 4 | pages= 250-255 | pmid=32434596 | doi=10.1017/ipm.2020.54 | pmc=7411439 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32434596  }} </ref>
+*In addition, this method of [[Psychiatry|psychiatric care]] can be utilized for group [[therapy]] as well.
+*A [[systematic review]], reported that video teleconference groups and in-person groups were similar in their [[treatment]] outcomes.<ref name="pmid29788807">{{cite journal| author=Gentry MT, Lapid MI, Clark MM, Rummans TA| title=Evidence for telehealth group-based treatment: A systematic review. | journal=J Telemed Telecare | year= 2019 | volume= 25 | issue= 6 | pages= 327-342 | pmid=29788807 | doi=10.1177/1357633X18775855 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29788807  }} </ref>
+*Telepsychiatry is not feasible for certain cohorts of [[patients]]. The following may limit the use of telepsychiatry:<ref name="pmid32434596">{{cite journal| author=O'Brien M, McNicholas F| title=The use of telepsychiatry during COVID-19 and beyond. | journal=Ir J Psychol Med | year= 2020 | volume= 37 | issue= 4 | pages= 250-255 | pmid=32434596 | doi=10.1017/ipm.2020.54 | pmc=7411439 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32434596  }} </ref>
+**Not having access to internet, smartphone or computer
+**Less technologically literate [[patients]]
+**Old age
+**[[Patients]] with diminished [[cognition]]
+=== Surgery ===
+*There is no [[surgery|surgical]] [[treatment]] for [[COVID-19]]-associated [[mental disorder|psychiatric disorders]]
+=== Prevention ===
+*Practiced by some countries, policies and interventions can help individuals to have a better [[mental health]] status during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]]. For instance Australia developed an initiative called "Better Access to Psychiatrists, Psychologists and General Practitioners through the Medicare Benefits Schedule (Better Access)" in order to provide psychological [[therapy]] sessions for [[patients]] suffering from [[mental disorders]].<ref name="pmid34308673">{{cite journal| author=Samy AL, Awang Bono S, Tan SL, Low WY| title=Mental Health and COVID-19: Policies, Guidelines, and Initiatives from the Asia-Pacific Region. | journal=Asia Pac J Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 33 | issue= 8 | pages= 839-846 | pmid=34308673 | doi=10.1177/10105395211025901 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34308673  }} </ref>
+*Proposing guidelines to provide an overview regarding the [[COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders]] for [[health care providers]] to improve their knowledge could also be helpful and has been practiced in some countries such as Singapore, India, China, and Malaysia.<ref name="pmid34308673">{{cite journal| author=Samy AL, Awang Bono S, Tan SL, Low WY| title=Mental Health and COVID-19: Policies, Guidelines, and Initiatives from the Asia-Pacific Region. | journal=Asia Pac J Public Health | year= 2021 | volume= 33 | issue= 8 | pages= 839-846 | pmid=34308673 | doi=10.1177/10105395211025901 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34308673  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33341174">{{cite journal| author=Dandona R, Sagar R| title=COVID-19 offers an opportunity to reform mental health in India. | journal=Lancet Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 8 | issue= 1 | pages= 9-11 | pmid=33341174 | doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30493-4 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33341174  }} </ref><ref name="pmid32544820">{{cite journal| author=Lim WP, Seet XY, Rahman H| title=Designing a psychological preparedness toolkit for healthcare workers in the wake of COVID-19: A Singapore perspective. | journal=Asian J Psychiatr | year= 2020 | volume= 53 | issue=  | pages= 102204 | pmid=32544820 | doi=10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102204 | pmc=7286254 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32544820  }} </ref>
+*Providing accurate and reliable information regarding the [[COVID-19]] and demolishing false information by governments and [[public health]] authorities can reduce distress and may prevent the [[mental disorders]] related to [[COVID-19]].<ref name="pmid32631403">{{cite journal| author=Salari N, Hosseinian-Far A, Jalali R, Vaisi-Raygani A, Rasoulpoor S, Mohammadi M | display-authors=etal| title=Prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. | journal=Global Health | year= 2020 | volume= 16 | issue= 1 | pages= 57 | pmid=32631403 | doi=10.1186/s12992-020-00589-w | pmc=7338126 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32631403  }} </ref>
+*Assuring a proper supply of personal protective equipment, such as masks, and hand sanitizers to address the related concern of individuals during the [[pandemic]].
+*Utilizing electronic devices and applications by [[public health]] authorities can ensure online access to a [[Health care provider|medical provider]] and can secure individuals from the [[Stress (medicine)|stresses]] related to the availability of medical help.<ref name="pmid32223317">{{cite journal| author=Wang Y, Di Y, Ye J, Wei W| title=Study on the public psychological states and its related factors during the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in some regions of China. | journal=Psychol Health Med | year= 2021 | volume= 26 | issue= 1 | pages= 13-22 | pmid=32223317 | doi=10.1080/13548506.2020.1746817 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32223317  }} </ref>
+*Since financial issues were introduced as one of the most important factors associated with a higher rate of [[depression]] during the [[COVID-19]] [[pandemic]], financial supports such as unemployment insurance (UI) may be able to [[Prevention (medical)|prevent]] [[depression]] among the population at risk.<ref name="pmid33252615">{{cite journal| author=Berkowitz SA, Basu S| title=Unemployment Insurance, Health-Related Social Needs, Health Care Access, and Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic. | journal=JAMA Intern Med | year= 2021 | volume= 181 | issue= 5 | pages= 699-702 | pmid=33252615 | doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.7048 | pmc=8094006 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33252615  }} </ref>
+*Governments and [[public health]] authorities can use text messages or computer-based interventions, telehealth services, and mass media campaigns to decrease the risk of [[mental disorders]] among the population at risk.<ref name="pmid33426559">{{cite journal| author=Khubchandani J, Sharma S, Webb FJ, Wiblishauser MJ, Bowman SL| title=Post-lockdown depression and anxiety in the USA during the COVID-19 pandemic. | journal=J Public Health (Oxf) | year= 2021 | volume= 43 | issue= 2 | pages= 246-253 | pmid=33426559 | doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdaa250 | pmc=7928742 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33426559  }} </ref>
+*One of the protective factors for [[depression]] during the [[pandemic]] was to construct a daily routine, including regular [[Physical exercise|exercises]] and appropriate [[sleep]], which can be practiced individually.<ref name="pmid33373680">{{cite journal| author=Varma P, Junge M, Meaklim H, Jackson ML| title=Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: A global cross-sectional survey. | journal=Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry | year= 2021 | volume= 109 | issue=  | pages= 110236 | pmid=33373680 | doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110236 | pmc=7834119 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33373680  }} </ref>
 ==References==
 {{Reflist|2}}
-[[Category:Pick One of 28 Approved]]
+[[Category:Up to date]]
 {{WS}}
 {{WH}}