Atrial septal defect percutaneous closure: Difference between revisions

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{{Atrial septal defect}}
{{Atrial septal defect}}
{{CMG}}; '''Associate Editors-In-Chief:''' [[Priyamvada Singh|Priyamvada Singh, MBBS]] [[mailto:psingh@perfuse.org]]; {{CZ}}; '''Assistant Editor-In-Chief:''' [[Kristin Feeney|Kristin Feeney, B.S.]] [[mailto:kfeeney@perfuse.org]]
{{CMG}}; '''Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief:''' [[Priyamvada Singh|Priyamvada Singh, M.B.B.S.]] [mailto:psingh13579@gmail.com]; {{CZ}} '''Assistant Editor(s)-In-Chief:''' [[Kristin Feeney|Kristin Feeney, B.S.]] [mailto:kfeeney@elon.edu]; {{AZ}}
==Overview==


==Overview==
Percutaneous device closure is commonly performed to close an [[Atrial septal defect ostium secundum|ostium secundum]] type of [[atrial septal defect]] and [[Atrial septal defect patent foramen ovale | patent foramen ovale]]s. It is still not [[FDA]] approved for closure of other forms of atrial septal defects such as [[Atrial septal defect ostium primum|primum]], [[Atrial septal defect sinus venosus|sinus venosus]] and [[Atrial septal defect coronary sinus | coronary sinus]]. With proper patient selection at experienced centers, it has been found to be as successful, safe and effective as [[Atrial septal defect surgical closure | surgical closure]].  Additionally, it has been associated with fewer complications and a reduced length of stay compared to [[Atrial septal defect surgical closure | surgical closure]] <ref name="pmid12039500">{{cite journal| author=Du ZD, Hijazi ZM, Kleinman CS, Silverman NH, Larntz K, Amplatzer Investigators| title=Comparison between transcatheter and surgical closure of secundum atrial septal defect in children and adults: results of a multicenter nonrandomized trial. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2002 | volume= 39 | issue= 11 | pages= 1836-44 | pmid=12039500 | doi= | pmc=|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12039500  }} </ref>.
Percutaneous transcatheter closure is used in limited atrial septal defect cases. The Food and Drug Administration has only authorized the use of percutaneous closure in [[Atrial septal defect ostium secundum|ostium secundum]] patients.
 
==Percutanous Closure==
 
===Mechanisms of Benefit===
In percutaneous closure of [[atrial septal defect]]s a self-expandable round disc is placed  around the defect that prevents the [[left-to-right shunt]]ing of blood across the lesion. The mechanical prevention of this shunting helps  improve the forward circulation in the [[heart]], prevents shunting of blood, and prevents mixing of well exygenated [[blood]] with poorly oxygenated blood ([[shunting]]).  It is associated with excellent results, particularly among those patients who have not developed irreversible [[Pulmonary hypertension|pulmonary artery disease]] ([[Eisenmenger's syndrome]]).
 
===Indications===
The percutaneous closure of [[atrial septal defect]]s is currently indicated only for children with secundum ASDs '''less than 30 mm''' in diameter as bigger defect is closed by surgery <ref name="Cao-2000">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Cao | first1 = Q. | last2 = Radtke | first2 = W. | last3 = Berger | first3 = F. | last4 = Zhu | first4 = W. | last5 = Hijazi | first5 = ZM. | title = Transcatheter closure of multiple atrial septal defects. Initial results and value of two- and three-dimensional transoesophageal echocardiography. | journal = Eur Heart J | volume = 21 | issue = 11 | pages = 941-7 | month = Jun | year = 2000 | doi = 10.1053/euhj.1999.1909 | PMID = 10806019 }}</ref>
:
:*[[Atrial septal defect ostium secundum|Ostium secundum atrial septal defects]]. In patients with a [[Ostium secundum atrial septal defect|secundum defect]], there must be a sufficient rim of '''at least 5 mm''' of tissue around the defect for successful percutaneous closure. <ref name="Cao-2000">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Cao | first1 = Q. | last2 = Radtke | first2 = W. | last3 = Berger | first3 = F. | last4 = Zhu | first4 = W. | last5 = Hijazi | first5 = ZM. | title = Transcatheter closure of multiple atrial septal defects. Initial results and value of two- and three-dimensional transoesophageal echocardiography. | journal = Eur Heart J | volume = 21 | issue = 11 | pages = 941-7 | month = Jun | year = 2000 | doi = 10.1053/euhj.1999.1909 | PMID = 10806019 }}</ref>


==Mechanisms of benefit==
:*[[Atrial septal defect patent foramen ovale | Patent foramen ovale]] ( patent formen ovale has inter-atrial communications but it is not a true [[atrial septal defect]] in sa far as there is a flap like piece of [[tissue]] ).
The Ampltazer septal occluder (ASO) is the most commonly used device as it allows closure of large cavities, is easy to implant, and boasts high success rates. As an instrument, the ASO consists of two self-expandable round discs connected to each other with a 4-mm waist, made up of 0.004–0.005´´ nitinol wire mesh filled with Dacron fabric. Implantation of the device is relatively easy. The prevalence of residual defect is low. It occludes the opening and benefits by preventing the shunting of blood across the lesion.


==Indication==
Percutaneous closure avoids [[cardiopulmonary bypass]], [[thoracotomy]], and atriotomy, and is associated with excellent outcomes.
Percutaneous transcatheter closure is currently only indicated for the closure of [[Atrial septal defect ostium secundum|ostium secundum atrial septal defects]]. In patients with a secundum defect, there must be a sufficient rim of tissue around the septal defect.


==Contra-indications==
===Contraindications===
It should not be used in patients with [[Atrial septal defect sinus venosus|sinus venosus]], [[Atrial septal defect ostium primum|primum]] or [[Atrial septal defect patent foramen ovale|patent foramen ovale]] atrial septal defects.
It should not be used in patients with [[Atrial septal defect ostium primum|primum]], [[Atrial septal defect sinus venosus|sinus venosus]] and [[Atrial septal defect coronary sinus | coronary sinus]] type of [[atrial septal defect]]s. Surgical closure of [[atrial septal defect ostium secundum|ostium secundum atrial septal defect]] can be done when a concomitant tricuspid valve repair is considered or when the anatomy of the defect doesn't favor a percutaneous device.


==Types of occluders==
===Type of Occluders===


The Food and Drug Administration has authorized the following percutaenous transcatheters for usage:<ref name="pmid11829678">{{cite journal| author=Schwetz BA| title=From the Food and Drug Administration. | journal=JAMA | year= 2002 | volume= 287 | issue= 5 | pages= 578 | pmid=11829678 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11829678  }} </ref>
The Amplatzer septal occluder (ASO) is currently the most widely used device because it is easy to implant and has high success rates. It first came to be used for human subjects in 1995. However, the device is still not approved for usage in percutaneous closure of [[Atrial septal defect ostium primum|primum]],[[Atrial septal defect sinus venosus|sinus venosus]] and [[Atrial septal defect coronary sinus | coronary sinus]] type of [[atrial septal defect]]s. It allows closure of large cavities, is easy to implant, and boasts high success rates. As an instrument, the Ampltazer septal occluder consists of two self-expandable round discs connected to each other with a 4-mm waist, made up of 0.004-0.005 nitinol wire mesh filled with dacron fabric. The prevalence of residual defect is low. The [[Food and Drug Administration]] has authorized the following percutaenous transcatheters for usage:<ref name="pmid11829678">{{cite journal| author=Schwetz BA|title=From the Food and Drug Administration. |journal=JAMA | year= 2002 | volume= 287 | issue= 5 | pages= 578 | pmid=11829678 | doi= | pmc=|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11829678  }} </ref>.
*Amplatzer septal occluder
:*Amplatzer septal occluder
*CardioSEAL
:*CardioSEAL
*HELEX septal occluder
:*HELEX septal occluder
*Sideris patch
:*Sideris patch


==Pre-surgical considerations==
The following devices are still under investigation:
:* Buttoned device<ref name="Zamora-1998">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Zamora | first1 = R. | last2 = Rao | first2 = PS. | last3 = Lloyd | first3 = TR. | last4 = Beekman | first4 = RH. | last5 = Sideris | first5 = EB. | title = Intermediate-term results of Phase I Food and Drug Administration Trials of buttoned device occlusion of secundum atrial septal defects. | journal = J Am Coll Cardiol | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 674-6 | month = Mar | year = 1998 | doi =  | PMID = 9502652 }}</ref><ref name="Aeschbacher-2000">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Aeschbacher | first1 = BC. | last2 = Chatterjee | first2 = T. | last3 = Meier | first3 = B. | title = Transesophageal echocardiography to evaluate success of transcatheter closure of large secundum atrial septal defects in adults using the buttoned device. | journal = Mayo Clin Proc | volume = 75 | issue = 9 | pages = 913-20 | month = Sep | year = 2000 | doi = 10.4065/75.9.913 | PMID = 10994827 }}</ref>
:* Angel wings<ref name="Rickers-1998">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Rickers | first1 = C. | last2 = Hamm | first2 = C. | last3 = Stern | first3 = H. | last4 = Hofmann | first4 = T. | last5 = Franzen | first5 = O. | last6 = Schräder | first6 = R. | last7 = Sievert | first7 = H. | last8 = Schranz | first8 = D. | last9 = Michel-Behnke | first9 = I. | title = Percutaneous closure of secundum atrial septal defect with a new self centering device (angel wings). | journal = Heart | volume = 80 | issue = 5 | pages = 517-21 | month = Nov | year = 1998 | doi =  | PMID = 9930056 }}</ref>
:* Atrial septal defect occlusion system<ref name="Sievert-1998">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Sievert | first1 = H. | last2 = Babic | first2 = UU. | last3 = Hausdorf | first3 = G. | last4 = Schneider | first4 = M. | last5 = Höpp | first5 = HW. | last6 = Pfeiffer | first6 = D. | last7 = Pfisterer | first7 = M. | last8 = Friedli | first8 = B. | last9 = Urban | first9 = P. | title = Transcatheter closure of atrial septal defect and patent foramen ovale with ASDOS device (a multi-institutional European trial). | journal = Am J Cardiol | volume = 82 | issue = 11 | pages = 1405-13 | month = Dec | year = 1998 | doi = | PMID = 9856928 }}</ref>


Prior to undergoing percutaneous closure, eligible atrial septal defect patients must undergo pharmacologic preparation therapy. Most therapy regimens include antiplatelet drugs to protect patients against thrombus formation. Prior to percutaneous closure, ostium secundum atrial septal defect patients undergo antiplatelet therapy such as [[aspirin]] or [[clopidogrel]] for a minimum of six months. This antiplatelet therapy protects patients against thrombus formation.
{{#ev:youtube|4c3CEgjj2PY}}


Secundum defects are assessed via [[Atrial septal defect echocardiography|echocardiographic monitoring]] to determine the anatomic viability of percutaneous closure. The ideal secundum defect is less than 30mm in diameter with an accompanying rim of tissue around the defect of at least 5mm. This rim of tissue serves to prevent impingement upon the [[superior vena cava|superior vena cava (SVC)]], [[inferior vena cava|inferior vena cava (IVC)]], as well as the [[tricuspid valve|tricuspid]] or [[mitral valve|mitral]] valves.<ref name="pmid1389707">{{cite journal| author=Ferreira SM, Ho SY, Anderson RH| title=Morphological study of defects of the atrial septum within the oval fossa: implications for transcatheter closure of left-to-right shunt. | journal=Br Heart J | year= 1992 | volume= 67 | issue= 4 | pages= 316-20 | pmid=1389707 | doi= | pmc=PMC1024841 | url= }} </ref>
===Percutaneous Repair===
Percutaneous device closure of [[atrial septal defect]], is currently approved only for [[Ostium secundum atrial septal defect|secundum defects]]. Prior to the procedure, the patient is started on [[antiplatelet]] therapy for 6 months to prevent [[thrombus]] formation. [[Transesophageal echocardiography]] along with stop-flow technique is used for determining the device size, position and deployment.
====Pre-Surgical Considerations====
:#Prior to undergoing percutaneous closure, eligible [[atrial septal defect]] patients must undergo pharmacologic preparation therapy.
:#Most therapy regimens include [[Antiplatelet Therapy to Support PCI (patient information)|antiplatelet drugs]] such as [[aspirin]] or [[clopidogrel]] for a minimum of six months to protect patients against [[thrombus]] formation.
:#[[Ostium secundum atrial septal defect|Secundum defects]] are assessed via [[Atrial septal defect echocardiography|echocardiographic monitoring]] to determine the anatomic viability of percutaneous closure.  
:#The ideal [[Ostium secundum atrial septal defect|secundum defect]] is less than 30mm in diameter with an accompanying rim of tissue around the defect of at least 5mm.  
:#The rim of tissue serves to prevent impingement upon the [[superior vena cava|superior vena cava (SVC)]], [[inferior vena cava|inferior vena cava (IVC)]], as well as the [[tricuspid valve|tricuspid]] or [[mitral valve|mitral]] valves.<ref name="pmid1389707">{{cite journal| author=Ferreira SM, Ho SY, Anderson RH|title=Morphological study of defects of the atrial septum within the oval fossa: implications for transcatheter closure of left-to-right shunt. | journal=Br Heart J | year= 1992 | volume= 67 | issue= 4 | pages= 316-20 | pmid=1389707 | doi= | pmc=PMC1024841 | url= }} </ref>


==Percutaneous v/s Surgical closure==
====Steps During Percutaneous Closure====
The salient feature of the percutaneous closure  are-
:#Device is placed via [[femoral vein]].
:#Best results are for centrally located [[Ostium secundum atrial septal defect|secundum defects]].
:#Static diameter of the defect is assessed by using [[transesophageal echocardiography]].
:#[[Transesophageal echocardiography]] used for determining the device size, position, and deployment.
:#A  stop-flow technique is used to select the proper diameter of the device.
:#In the stop flow technique, the sizing balloon is inflated until no flow is visible through the defect using [[transesophageal echocardiography]].
:#The margins of the defect must be ≤5 mm to accommodate the edges of the device.
{{#ev:youtube|Gros-u7YCTk}}


In a multicenter, non-randomized study performed in 29 pediatric cardiology centers, the patients were allotted to either the device group or the surgical closure group depending on their preference. The success rate of the surgery was similar in the per-cutaneous and the surgical groups. However, the complication rate was more in the surgical (24%) compared to the percutaneous group (7.2%). Also, the mean hospital stay was 3 days in surgical group compared to 1 day in the percutaneous device group. With appropriate patient selection, device closure could be very successful. Also, it is safe and effective compared to other modalities <ref name="pmid12039500">{{cite journal| author=Du ZD, Hijazi ZM, Kleinman CS, Silverman NH, Larntz K, Amplatzer Investigators| title=Comparison between transcatheter and surgical closure of secundum atrial septal defect in children and adults: results of a multicenter nonrandomized trial. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2002 | volume= 39 | issue= 11 | pages= 1836-44 | pmid=12039500 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12039500 }} </ref>.
===Benefits of Percutaneous Closure===
The percutaneous closure of [[Atrial septal defect ostium secundum|ostium secundum]] is the method of choice in many centers.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Bjørnstad P | title = Is interventional closure the current treatment of choice for selected patients with deficient atrial septation? | journal = Cardiol Young|volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 3-10 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16454871}}</ref><ref name="pmid10525508">{{cite journal| author=Dhillon R, Thanopoulos B, Tsaousis G, Triposkiadis F, Kyriakidis M, Redington A| title=Transcatheter closure of atrial septal defects in adults with the Amplatzer septal occluder.|journal=Heart | year= 1999 | volume= 82 | issue= 5 | pages= 559-62 | pmid=10525508 | doi= | pmc=PMC1760778 | url= }} </ref> The benefits that can be associated with the closure are as follow:
====Disease Related Benefits====
:*Fewer complications compared to [[Atrial septal defect surgical closure | surgical closure]]
:*Reduced need for [[blood transfusion]]s
:*Symptomatic improvement
:*Regression of [[positive airway pressure]]
:*Positive changes in right ventricle performance
:*Improved functional capacity<ref name="pmid15708694">{{cite journal| author=Salehian O, Horlick E, Schwerzmann M, Haberer K, McLaughlin P, Siu SC et al.|title=Improvements in cardiac form and function after transcatheter closure of secundum atrial septal defects. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2005|volume= 45 | issue= 4 | pages= 499-504 | pmid=15708694 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2004.10.052 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15708694 }} </ref>
:**Left atrial volume index
:**Left ventricular myocardial performance index
:**Right ventricular myocardial performance index
:**Peak oxygen uptake


==[[Atrial septal defect percutaneous closure benefits|Benefits ]]==
====Other Benefits====
:* Less invasive no need for [[cardiopulmonary bypass]]
:* Successful implantation rates of more than 96%
:* Established practice (done in most hospital these days)
:* Cost-effective
:* Shorter hospital stays


==[[Atrial septal defect percutaneous closure complications|Complications]]==
===Complications===
The frequency of complications with percutaneous closure is low, manifesting in '''under 9%''' of all cases. With experienced, skilled clinicians, the rate of complication may be '''as low as 1%'''.<ref name="pmid11897451">{{cite journal| author=Chessa M, Carminati M, Butera G, Bini RM, Drago M, Rosti L et al.| title=Early and late complications associated with transcatheter occlusion of secundum atrial septal defect. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2002 | volume= 39 | issue= 6| pages= 1061-5 | pmid=11897451 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11897451  }} </ref> Complications associated with percutaneous closure include:
====Device Related====
:*Device [[embolization]]
:*Malposition of the device
:*Device erosion


==[[ACC/AHA recommendations for interventional and surgical therapy in atrial septal defect|ACC/AHA recommendations for interventional and surgical therapy]]==
====Medical Complications====
:*[[Atrial fibrillation]] or [[supraventricular tachycardia]]
:*Transient antrioventricular block/[[heart block]]
:*[[Pericardial effusion]]
:*[[Thrombus]] formation in the [[left atrial appendage]]
:*Iliac vein dissection
:*Groin [[hematoma]]
:*Cardiac perforation
:*Increased levels of cardiac [[troponin I]]
:*Residual shunts
:*There can be migration or erosion of the device so follow-up is warranted.


==Supportive trial data==
===Prognosis===
In a study done on 236 patients with secundum atrial septal defects (ASD), to evaluate the safety and efficacy of transcatheter closure with the amplatzer septal occlude, the device was found to be very efficient.  It causes atrial septal defect closure in 84.7% of the treated patient population. During a median follow up of 2.3 years complete closure was documented in 94%, with a residual shunt only in 12 patients. Two of the treated patients were reported to have procedure related complications like retroperitoneal bleeding and air embolism.<ref name="pmid12527678">{{cite journal| author=Fischer G, Stieh J, Uebing A, Hoffmann U, Morf G, Kramer HH| title=Experience with transcatheter closure of secundum atrial septal defects using the Amplatzer septal occluder: a single centre study in 236 consecutive patients. | journal=Heart | year= 2003 | volume= 89 | issue= 2 | pages= 199-204 | pmid=12527678 | doi= | pmc=PMC1767528 | url= }} </ref>
The prognosis of percutaneous repair of [[atrial septal defect]] is generally good. However, the prognosis varies and depends on some factors like age at surgery, size of defect, amount of blood shunting and other associated co-morbidities at the time of repair. Some complications like [[pulmonary hypertension]], [[Eisenmenger’s syndrome]], [[right sided heart failure]], [[arrhythmia]]s ([[atrial fibrillation]], [[atrial flutter]]) and [[stroke]] can occur after the repair. However, these are common in older patients(>40years) compared to younger patients.


===Supportive Trial Data===


====Trials Comparing Percutaneous versus Surgical Closure====
1) In a multicenter, non-randomized study performed in 29 pediatric cardiology centers, the patients were allotted to either the percutaneous closure or the[[Atrial septal defect surgical closure | surgical closure]] group depending on their preference. The success rate of the surgery was similar in the percutaneous closure and the surgical closure. However, the complication rates were more in the surgical groups (24%) compared to the percutaneous groups (7.2%). Also, the mean hospital stay was 3 days in [[Atrial septal defect surgical closure | surgical group]] compared to 1 day in the percutaneous device group. Additionally,[[Atrial septal defect surgical closure | surgical closure]] required [[sternotomy]] and [[cardiopulmonary bypass]]. With appropriate patient selection, device closure could be very successful. Also, it is safe and effective compared to other modalities.<ref name="pmid12039500">{{cite journal|author=Du ZD, Hijazi ZM, Kleinman CS, Silverman NH, Larntz K, Amplatzer Investigators| title=Comparison between transcatheter and surgical closure of secundum atrial septal defect in children and adults: results of a multicenter nonrandomized trial. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2002 | volume= 39 | issue= 11 |pages= 1836-44 |pmid=12039500 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12039500 }} </ref>


<youtube v=Gros-u7YCTk/>
2) A study done on 45 subjects (15 with percutaneous closure, 15 with [[Atrial septal defect surgical closure | surgical correction]] and 15 control) to evaluate the left and right atrial function after transcatheter [[atrial septal defect]] closure compared with surgically treated [[ASD]], using strain (epsilon) and epsilon rate imaging (SR) techniques, found that in the [[Atrial septal defect surgical closure | surgical corrected groups]] the peak systolic epsilon and SR values were significantly reduced compared to device and control group. Thus, it could be concluded that percutaneous closure helps in conserving both the atrial regional myocardial properties. <ref name="pmid16153516">{{cite journal| author=Di Salvo G, Drago M, Pacileo G, Rea A, Carrozza M, Santoro G et al.| title=Atrial function after surgical and percutaneous closure of atrial septal defect: a strain rate imaging study. | journal=J Am Soc Echocardiogr | year= 2005 | volume= 18|issue= 9 | pages= 930-3 | pmid=16153516 | doi=10.1016/j.echo.2005.01.029 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16153516  }} </ref>


<youtube v=4c3CEgjj2PY/>
====Trials Testing the Efficacy and Safety of Device Closure====
In a study done on 236 patients with [[Ostium secundum atrial septal defects|ostium secundum]] ([[ASD]]), to evaluate the safety and efficacy of transcatheter closure with the amplatzer septal occluder, the device was found to be very efficient.  It causes [[atrial septal defect]] closure in 84.7% of the treated patient population. During a median follow up of 2.3 years complete closure was documented in 94%, with a residual shunt only in 12 patients. Two of the treated patients were reported to have procedure related complications like [[retroperitoneal bleeding]] and [[air embolism]].<ref name="pmid12527678">{{cite journal|author=Fischer G, Stieh J, Uebing A, Hoffmann U, Morf G, Kramer HH| title=Experience with transcatheter closure of secundum atrial septal defects using the Amplatzer septal occluder: a single centre study in 236 consecutive patients. | journal=Heart | year= 2003 | volume= 89 | issue= 2 | pages= 199-204|pmid=12527678 | doi= | pmc=PMC1767528 | url= }} </ref>


==References==
==References==
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Latest revision as of 02:22, 15 March 2016

Atrial Septal Defect Microchapters

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief: Priyamvada Singh, M.B.B.S. [2]; Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [3] Assistant Editor(s)-In-Chief: Kristin Feeney, B.S. [4]; Ahmed Zaghw, M.D. [5]

Overview

Percutaneous device closure is commonly performed to close an ostium secundum type of atrial septal defect and patent foramen ovales. It is still not FDA approved for closure of other forms of atrial septal defects such as primum, sinus venosus and coronary sinus. With proper patient selection at experienced centers, it has been found to be as successful, safe and effective as surgical closure. Additionally, it has been associated with fewer complications and a reduced length of stay compared to surgical closure [1].

Percutanous Closure

Mechanisms of Benefit

In percutaneous closure of atrial septal defects a self-expandable round disc is placed around the defect that prevents the left-to-right shunting of blood across the lesion. The mechanical prevention of this shunting helps improve the forward circulation in the heart, prevents shunting of blood, and prevents mixing of well exygenated blood with poorly oxygenated blood (shunting). It is associated with excellent results, particularly among those patients who have not developed irreversible pulmonary artery disease (Eisenmenger's syndrome).

Indications

The percutaneous closure of atrial septal defects is currently indicated only for children with secundum ASDs less than 30 mm in diameter as bigger defect is closed by surgery [2]

Percutaneous closure avoids cardiopulmonary bypass, thoracotomy, and atriotomy, and is associated with excellent outcomes.

Contraindications

It should not be used in patients with primum, sinus venosus and coronary sinus type of atrial septal defects. Surgical closure of ostium secundum atrial septal defect can be done when a concomitant tricuspid valve repair is considered or when the anatomy of the defect doesn't favor a percutaneous device.

Type of Occluders

The Amplatzer septal occluder (ASO) is currently the most widely used device because it is easy to implant and has high success rates. It first came to be used for human subjects in 1995. However, the device is still not approved for usage in percutaneous closure of primum,sinus venosus and coronary sinus type of atrial septal defects. It allows closure of large cavities, is easy to implant, and boasts high success rates. As an instrument, the Ampltazer septal occluder consists of two self-expandable round discs connected to each other with a 4-mm waist, made up of 0.004-0.005 nitinol wire mesh filled with dacron fabric. The prevalence of residual defect is low. The Food and Drug Administration has authorized the following percutaenous transcatheters for usage:[3].

  • Amplatzer septal occluder
  • CardioSEAL
  • HELEX septal occluder
  • Sideris patch

The following devices are still under investigation:

  • Buttoned device[4][5]
  • Angel wings[6]
  • Atrial septal defect occlusion system[7]

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Percutaneous Repair

Percutaneous device closure of atrial septal defect, is currently approved only for secundum defects. Prior to the procedure, the patient is started on antiplatelet therapy for 6 months to prevent thrombus formation. Transesophageal echocardiography along with stop-flow technique is used for determining the device size, position and deployment.

Pre-Surgical Considerations

  1. Prior to undergoing percutaneous closure, eligible atrial septal defect patients must undergo pharmacologic preparation therapy.
  2. Most therapy regimens include antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin or clopidogrel for a minimum of six months to protect patients against thrombus formation.
  3. Secundum defects are assessed via echocardiographic monitoring to determine the anatomic viability of percutaneous closure.
  4. The ideal secundum defect is less than 30mm in diameter with an accompanying rim of tissue around the defect of at least 5mm.
  5. The rim of tissue serves to prevent impingement upon the superior vena cava (SVC), inferior vena cava (IVC), as well as the tricuspid or mitral valves.[8]

Steps During Percutaneous Closure

The salient feature of the percutaneous closure are-

  1. Device is placed via femoral vein.
  2. Best results are for centrally located secundum defects.
  3. Static diameter of the defect is assessed by using transesophageal echocardiography.
  4. Transesophageal echocardiography used for determining the device size, position, and deployment.
  5. A stop-flow technique is used to select the proper diameter of the device.
  6. In the stop flow technique, the sizing balloon is inflated until no flow is visible through the defect using transesophageal echocardiography.
  7. The margins of the defect must be ≤5 mm to accommodate the edges of the device.

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Benefits of Percutaneous Closure

The percutaneous closure of ostium secundum is the method of choice in many centers.[9][10] The benefits that can be associated with the closure are as follow:

Disease Related Benefits

  • Fewer complications compared to surgical closure
  • Reduced need for blood transfusions
  • Symptomatic improvement
  • Regression of positive airway pressure
  • Positive changes in right ventricle performance
  • Improved functional capacity[11]
    • Left atrial volume index
    • Left ventricular myocardial performance index
    • Right ventricular myocardial performance index
    • Peak oxygen uptake

Other Benefits

  • Less invasive no need for cardiopulmonary bypass
  • Successful implantation rates of more than 96%
  • Established practice (done in most hospital these days)
  • Cost-effective
  • Shorter hospital stays

Complications

The frequency of complications with percutaneous closure is low, manifesting in under 9% of all cases. With experienced, skilled clinicians, the rate of complication may be as low as 1%.[12] Complications associated with percutaneous closure include:

Device Related

  • Device embolization
  • Malposition of the device
  • Device erosion

Medical Complications

Prognosis

The prognosis of percutaneous repair of atrial septal defect is generally good. However, the prognosis varies and depends on some factors like age at surgery, size of defect, amount of blood shunting and other associated co-morbidities at the time of repair. Some complications like pulmonary hypertension, Eisenmenger’s syndrome, right sided heart failure, arrhythmias (atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter) and stroke can occur after the repair. However, these are common in older patients(>40years) compared to younger patients.

Supportive Trial Data

Trials Comparing Percutaneous versus Surgical Closure

1) In a multicenter, non-randomized study performed in 29 pediatric cardiology centers, the patients were allotted to either the percutaneous closure or the surgical closure group depending on their preference. The success rate of the surgery was similar in the percutaneous closure and the surgical closure. However, the complication rates were more in the surgical groups (24%) compared to the percutaneous groups (7.2%). Also, the mean hospital stay was 3 days in surgical group compared to 1 day in the percutaneous device group. Additionally, surgical closure required sternotomy and cardiopulmonary bypass. With appropriate patient selection, device closure could be very successful. Also, it is safe and effective compared to other modalities.[1]

2) A study done on 45 subjects (15 with percutaneous closure, 15 with surgical correction and 15 control) to evaluate the left and right atrial function after transcatheter atrial septal defect closure compared with surgically treated ASD, using strain (epsilon) and epsilon rate imaging (SR) techniques, found that in the surgical corrected groups the peak systolic epsilon and SR values were significantly reduced compared to device and control group. Thus, it could be concluded that percutaneous closure helps in conserving both the atrial regional myocardial properties. [13]

Trials Testing the Efficacy and Safety of Device Closure

In a study done on 236 patients with ostium secundum (ASD), to evaluate the safety and efficacy of transcatheter closure with the amplatzer septal occluder, the device was found to be very efficient. It causes atrial septal defect closure in 84.7% of the treated patient population. During a median follow up of 2.3 years complete closure was documented in 94%, with a residual shunt only in 12 patients. Two of the treated patients were reported to have procedure related complications like retroperitoneal bleeding and air embolism.[14]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Du ZD, Hijazi ZM, Kleinman CS, Silverman NH, Larntz K, Amplatzer Investigators (2002). "Comparison between transcatheter and surgical closure of secundum atrial septal defect in children and adults: results of a multicenter nonrandomized trial". J Am Coll Cardiol. 39 (11): 1836–44. PMID 12039500.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Cao, Q.; Radtke, W.; Berger, F.; Zhu, W.; Hijazi, ZM. (2000). "Transcatheter closure of multiple atrial septal defects. Initial results and value of two- and three-dimensional transoesophageal echocardiography". Eur Heart J. 21 (11): 941–7. doi:10.1053/euhj.1999.1909. PMID 10806019. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ Schwetz BA (2002). "From the Food and Drug Administration". JAMA. 287 (5): 578. PMID 11829678.
  4. ↑ Zamora, R.; Rao, PS.; Lloyd, TR.; Beekman, RH.; Sideris, EB. (1998). "Intermediate-term results of Phase I Food and Drug Administration Trials of buttoned device occlusion of secundum atrial septal defects". J Am Coll Cardiol. 31 (3): 674–6. PMID 9502652. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ Aeschbacher, BC.; Chatterjee, T.; Meier, B. (2000). "Transesophageal echocardiography to evaluate success of transcatheter closure of large secundum atrial septal defects in adults using the buttoned device". Mayo Clin Proc. 75 (9): 913–20. doi:10.4065/75.9.913. PMID 10994827. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  6. ↑ Rickers, C.; Hamm, C.; Stern, H.; Hofmann, T.; Franzen, O.; Schräder, R.; Sievert, H.; Schranz, D.; Michel-Behnke, I. (1998). "Percutaneous closure of secundum atrial septal defect with a new self centering device (angel wings)". Heart. 80 (5): 517–21. PMID 9930056. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ Sievert, H.; Babic, UU.; Hausdorf, G.; Schneider, M.; Höpp, HW.; Pfeiffer, D.; Pfisterer, M.; Friedli, B.; Urban, P. (1998). "Transcatheter closure of atrial septal defect and patent foramen ovale with ASDOS device (a multi-institutional European trial)". Am J Cardiol. 82 (11): 1405–13. PMID 9856928. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  8. ↑ Ferreira SM, Ho SY, Anderson RH (1992). "Morphological study of defects of the atrial septum within the oval fossa: implications for transcatheter closure of left-to-right shunt". Br Heart J. 67 (4): 316–20. PMC 1024841. PMID 1389707.
  9. ↑ Bjørnstad P (2006). "Is interventional closure the current treatment of choice for selected patients with deficient atrial septation?". Cardiol Young. 16 (1): 3–10. PMID 16454871.
  10. ↑ Dhillon R, Thanopoulos B, Tsaousis G, Triposkiadis F, Kyriakidis M, Redington A (1999). "Transcatheter closure of atrial septal defects in adults with the Amplatzer septal occluder". Heart. 82 (5): 559–62. PMC 1760778. PMID 10525508.
  11. ↑ Salehian O, Horlick E, Schwerzmann M, Haberer K, McLaughlin P, Siu SC; et al. (2005). "Improvements in cardiac form and function after transcatheter closure of secundum atrial septal defects". J Am Coll Cardiol. 45 (4): 499–504. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2004.10.052. PMID 15708694.
  12. ↑ Chessa M, Carminati M, Butera G, Bini RM, Drago M, Rosti L; et al. (2002). "Early and late complications associated with transcatheter occlusion of secundum atrial septal defect". J Am Coll Cardiol. 39 (6): 1061–5. PMID 11897451.
  13. ↑ Di Salvo G, Drago M, Pacileo G, Rea A, Carrozza M, Santoro G; et al. (2005). "Atrial function after surgical and percutaneous closure of atrial septal defect: a strain rate imaging study". J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 18 (9): 930–3. doi:10.1016/j.echo.2005.01.029. PMID 16153516.
  14. ↑ Fischer G, Stieh J, Uebing A, Hoffmann U, Morf G, Kramer HH (2003). "Experience with transcatheter closure of secundum atrial septal defects using the Amplatzer septal occluder: a single centre study in 236 consecutive patients". Heart. 89 (2): 199–204. PMC 1767528. PMID 12527678.

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