Myocarditis endomyocardial biopsy: Difference between revisions

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(/* Complications of Endomyocardial Biopsy{{cite journal| author=Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U et al.| title=The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from)
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{{Myocarditis}}
__NOTOC__
{{CMG}}; '''Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief:'''[[Varun Kumar]], M.B.B.S.
{{myocarditis}}
{{CMG}} '''Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief:''' [[Varun Kumar]] M.B.B.S., {{Maliha}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
[[Endomyocardial biopsy]] remains the gold standard test to evaluate for the presence of and to subclassify the type of myocarditis.  A small tissue sample of the [[endocardium]] and [[myocardium]] is obtained via right sided cardiac catheterization. The sample is then evaluated by a pathologist using [[immunochemistry]] and special staining techniques as necessary.  Histopathological features include abundant [[edema]] in the myocardial [[interstitium]] and an inflammatory infiltrate which is rich in [[lymphocyte]]s and [[macrophage]]s.  Focal destruction of [[myocytes]] as a result of the inflammatory process explains the myocardial [[pump failure]].<ref name="pmid11070105">{{cite journal| author=Feldman AM, McNamara D| title=Myocarditis. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2000 | volume= 343 | issue= 19 | pages= 1388-98 | pmid=11070105 | doi=10.1056/NEJM200011093431908 | pmc= | url= }} </ref>  [[Endomyocardial biopsy]] is recommended when the results would identify an underlying disease that is amenable to therapy.  Routine performance of [[endomyocardial biopsy]] is not recommended in all patients with myocarditis.
[[Endomyocardial biopsy]] remains the gold standard test to evaluate for the presence of and to subclassify the type of myocarditis.  A small tissue sample of the [[endocardium]] and [[myocardium]] is obtained via right sided cardiac catheterization. The sample is then evaluated by a pathologist using [[immunochemistry]] and special staining techniques as necessary.  Histopathological features include abundant [[edema]] in the myocardial [[interstitium]] and an inflammatory infiltrate which is rich in [[lymphocyte]]s and [[macrophage]]s.  Focal destruction of [[myocytes]] as a result of the inflammatory process results in [[left ventricular dysfunction]].<ref name="pmid11070105">{{cite journal| author=Feldman AM, McNamara D| title=Myocarditis. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2000 | volume= 343 | issue= 19 | pages= 1388-98 | pmid=11070105 | doi=10.1056/NEJM200011093431908 | pmc= | url= }} </ref>  [[Endomyocardial biopsy]] is recommended when the results would identify an underlying disease that is amenable to therapy.  Routine performance of [[endomyocardial biopsy]] is not recommended in all patients with myocarditis.


==Endomyocardial biopsy==
==Endomyocardial Biopsy==
The Heart Failure Society of America recommends that performance of [[endomyocardial biopsy]] should be considered when cardiac function deteriorates acutely with an unknown etiology that is unresponsive to medical therapy ''(Strength of Evidence = B)''<ref name="pmid20610207">{{cite journal| author=Heart Failure Society of America. Lindenfeld J, Albert NM, Boehmer JP, Collins SP, Ezekowitz JA et al.| title=HFSA 2010 Comprehensive Heart Failure Practice Guideline. | journal=J Card Fail | year= 2010 | volume= 16 | issue= 6 | pages= e1-194 | pmid=20610207 | doi=10.1016/j.cardfail.2010.04.004 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20610207  }} </ref>.
*The Heart Failure Society of America recommends that performance of [[endomyocardial biopsy]] should be considered when cardiac function deteriorates acutely with an unknown etiology that is unresponsive to medical therapy ''(Strength of Evidence = B)''.<ref name="pmid20610207">{{cite journal| author=Heart Failure Society of America. Lindenfeld J, Albert NM, Boehmer JP, Collins SP, Ezekowitz JA et al.| title=HFSA 2010 Comprehensive Heart Failure Practice Guideline. | journal=J Card Fail | year= 2010 | volume= 16 | issue= 6 | pages= e1-194 | pmid=20610207 | doi=10.1016/j.cardfail.2010.04.004 | pmc= | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20610207  }} </ref>  


Non-specific findings such as [[hypertrophy]], cell loss and [[fibrosis]] may be noted on biopsy. However, biopsy findings that significantly impact patient management have not been conclusively established<ref name="pmid3421562">{{cite journal| author=Chow LC, Dittrich HC, Shabetai R| title=Endomyocardial biopsy in patients with unexplained congestive heart failure. | journal=Ann Intern Med | year= 1988 | volume= 109 | issue= 7 | pages= 535-9 | pmid=3421562 | doi= | pmc= | url= }} </ref>. For example, inflammatory changes in myocardium may be detected in viral myocarditis. Nevertheless, majority of the patients with biopsy proven myocarditis improve with just supportive care without any need for antiviral or anti-inflammatory treatment<ref name="pmid7596370">{{cite journal| author=Mason JW, O'Connell JB, Herskowitz A, Rose NR, McManus BM, Billingham ME et al.| title=A clinical trial of immunosuppressive therapy for myocarditis. The Myocarditis Treatment Trial Investigators. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1995 | volume= 333 | issue= 5 | pages= 269-75 | pmid=7596370 | doi=10.1056/NEJM199508033330501 | pmc= | url= }} </ref>. Endomyocardial biopsy has a low sensitivity and specificity which could be explained by the focal and transient nature of the inflammatory infiltrates<ref name="pmid14993139">{{cite journal| author=Mahrholdt H, Goedecke C, Wagner A, Meinhardt G, Athanasiadis A, Vogelsberg H et al.| title=Cardiovascular magnetic resonance assessment of human myocarditis: a comparison to histology and molecular pathology. | journal=Circulation | year= 2004 | volume= 109 | issue= 10 | pages= 1250-8 | pmid=14993139 | doi=10.1161/01.CIR.0000118493.13323.81 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14993139  }} </ref><ref name="pmid2593714">{{cite journal| author=Hauck AJ, Kearney DL, Edwards WD| title=Evaluation of postmortem endomyocardial biopsy specimens from 38 patients with lymphocytic myocarditis: implications for role of sampling error. | journal=Mayo Clin Proc | year= 1989 | volume= 64 | issue= 10 | pages= 1235-45 | pmid=2593714 | doi= | pmc= | url= }} </ref>.
*Non-specific findings such as [[hypertrophy]], cell loss, and [[fibrosis]] may be noted on biopsy. However, biopsy findings that significantly impact patient management have not been conclusively established.<ref name="pmid3421562">{{cite journal| author=Chow LC, Dittrich HC, Shabetai R| title=Endomyocardial biopsy in patients with unexplained congestive heart failure. | journal=Ann Intern Med | year= 1988 | volume= 109 | issue= 7 | pages= 535-9 | pmid=3421562 | doi= | pmc= | url= }} </ref> Although inflammatory changes in the myocardium may be detected in viral myocarditis, the majority of patients with biopsy proven myocarditis improve with supportive therapy alone without the need for antiviral or anti-inflammatory treatment.<ref name="pmid7596370">{{cite journal| author=Mason JW, O'Connell JB, Herskowitz A, Rose NR, McManus BM, Billingham ME et al.| title=A clinical trial of immunosuppressive therapy for myocarditis. The Myocarditis Treatment Trial Investigators. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1995 | volume= 333 | issue= 5 | pages= 269-75 | pmid=7596370 | doi=10.1056/NEJM199508033330501 | pmc= | url= }} </ref> Endomyocardial biopsy has a low sensitivity and specificity which could be explained by the focal and transient nature of the inflammatory infiltrates.<ref name="pmid14993139">{{cite journal| author=Mahrholdt H, Goedecke C, Wagner A, Meinhardt G, Athanasiadis A, Vogelsberg H et al.| title=Cardiovascular magnetic resonance assessment of human myocarditis: a comparison to histology and molecular pathology. | journal=Circulation | year= 2004 | volume= 109 | issue= 10 | pages= 1250-8 | pmid=14993139 | doi=10.1161/01.CIR.0000118493.13323.81 | pmc= | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14993139  }} </ref><ref name="pmid2593714">{{cite journal| author=Hauck AJ, Kearney DL, Edwards WD| title=Evaluation of postmortem endomyocardial biopsy specimens from 38 patients with lymphocytic myocarditis: implications for role of sampling error. | journal=Mayo Clin Proc | year= 1989 | volume= 64 | issue= 10 | pages= 1235-45 | pmid=2593714 | doi= | pmc= | url= }} </ref>


==Standardization of the Interpretation of Endomyocardial Biopsy: The Dallas Criteria==
==Standardizing the Interpretation of Endomyocardial Biopsies: The Dallas Criteria==
Histologically, both active inflammatory infiltrate within the myocardium and associated myocyte necrosis (the Dallas pathologic criteria)<ref name="pmid3455232">{{cite journal| author=Aretz HT, Billingham ME, Edwards WD, Factor SM, Fallon JT, Fenoglio JJ et al.| title=Myocarditis. A histopathologic definition and classification. | journal=Am J Cardiovasc Pathol | year= 1987 | volume= 1 | issue= 1 | pages= 3-14 | pmid=3455232 | doi= | pmc= | url= }} </ref> are present in myocarditis. Despite its limitations, the Dallas criteria have established uniform histologic criteria diagnosing myocarditis and have substantially reduced the variability in diagnosing the disease.  Some of the criteria are as follows:
Histologically, both active inflammatory infiltrate within the myocardium and associated myocyte necrosis (the Dallas pathologic criteria) are present in myocarditis. Despite its limitations, the Dallas criteria have established uniform histologic criteria diagnosing myocarditis and have substantially reduced the variability in diagnosing the disease.  Some of the criteria are as follows:<ref name="pmid3455232">{{cite journal| author=Aretz HT, Billingham ME, Edwards WD, Factor SM, Fallon JT, Fenoglio JJ et al.| title=Myocarditis. A histopathologic definition and classification. | journal=Am J Cardiovasc Pathol | year= 1987 | volume= 1 | issue= 1 | pages= 3-14 | pmid=3455232 | }} </ref>
{{cquote|
*'''Active myocarditis:''' the presence of an inflammatory infiltrate of the myocardium with necrosis and/or degeneration of adjacent myocytes not typical of the ischaemic damage associated with [[coronary artery disease]].
*'''Borderline myocarditis:''' the presence of an inflammatory infiltrate of the myocardium without necrosis or degeneration of adjacent myocytes.}}


==Scenarios in Which Endomyocardial Biopsy is Useful==
Myocardial biopsy may be useful in:
*Confirming the clinically suspected cause of [[myocarditis]].
*Confirming the presence of cardiac disorders such as [[amyloidosis]] which may identify patients who are not eligible for [[cardiac  transplantation]].
*[[Giant cell myocarditis]] can be identified on [[endomyocardial biopsy]]. These patients generally progress rapidly to either [[cardiac transplantation]] or death and are poorly responsive to treatment. Hence, myocardial biopsy may assist in the optimal management of these patients by identifying and triaging patients who may benefit from early [[heart transplantation]]<ref name="pmid9197214">{{cite journal| author=Cooper LT, Berry GJ, Shabetai R| title=Idiopathic giant-cell myocarditis--natural history and treatment. Multicenter Giant Cell Myocarditis Study Group Investigators. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1997 | volume= 336 | issue= 26 | pages= 1860-6 | pmid=9197214 | doi=10.1056/NEJM199706263362603 | pmc= | url= }} </ref>.
==2009 ACC / AHA Guidelines for Endomyocardial Biopsy<ref name="pmid19324966">{{cite journal| author=Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG et al.| title=2009 focused update incorporated into the ACC/AHA 2005 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. | journal=Circulation | year= 2009 | volume= 119 | issue= 14 | pages= e391-479 | pmid=19324966 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192065 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19324966  }} </ref>==
{{cquote|
{{cquote|
'''Class IIa'''
====Active myocarditis:====
*Endomyocardial biopsy can be useful in patients presenting with [[heart failure]] when a specific diagnosis is suspected that would influence therapy.<ref name="pmid17959655">{{cite journal| author=Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U et al.| title=The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. | journal=Circulation | year= 2007 | volume= 116 | issue= 19 | pages= 2216-33 | pmid=17959655 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.186093 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17959655  }} </ref> ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
*The presence of an inflammatory infiltrate of the myocardium with necrosis and/or degeneration of adjacent myocytes not typical of the ischaemic damage associated with [[coronary artery disease]].


'''Class III'''
====Borderline myocarditis:====
*Endomyocardial biopsy should not be performed in the routine evaluation of patients with [[heart failure]].<ref name="pmid17959655">{{cite journal| author=Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U et al.| title=The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. | journal=Circulation | year= 2007 | volume= 116 | issue= 19 | pages= 2216-33 | pmid=17959655 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.186093 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17959655  }} </ref> ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
*The presence of an inflammatory infiltrate of the myocardium without necrosis or degeneration of adjacent myocytes.}}
}}


==The AHA/ACCF/ESC Scientific Statement: The role of Endomyocardial Biopsy in fourteen clinical scenarios<ref name="pmid17959655">{{cite journal| author=Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U et al.| title=The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. | journal=Circulation | year= 2007 | volume= 116 | issue= 19 | pages= 2216-33 | pmid=17959655 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.186093 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17959655 }} </ref>==
==Scenarios in Which Endomyocardial Biopsy May Be Useful<ref name="pmid11605687">{{cite journal| author=Wu LA, Lapeyre AC, Cooper LT| title=Current role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis. | journal=Mayo Clin Proc | year= 2001 | volume= 76 | issue= 10 | pages= 1030-8 | pmid=11605687 | doi= | pmc= | url= }} </ref><ref name="pmid16476862">{{cite journal| author=Magnani JW, Dec GW| title=Myocarditis: current trends in diagnosis and treatment. | journal=Circulation | year= 2006 | volume= 113 | issue= 6 | pages= 876-90 | pmid=16476862 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.584532 | pmc= | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16476862 }} </ref>==
{{cquote|
'''Class I'''


1. New-onset [[heart failure]] of <2 weeks’ duration associated with a normal-sized or [[dilated left ventricle]] and hemodynamic compromise. ''(Level of Evidence: B)''


2. New-onset [[heart failure]] of 2 weeks’ to 3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle and new ventricular [[arrhythmias]], second- or third-degree [[heart block]], or failure to respond to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. ''(Level of Evidence: B)''
*Subacute or acute symptoms of [[heart failure]] refractory to standard management
 
*Rapid worsening of [[ejection fraction]] despite standard pharmacological therapy
'''Class IIa'''
*Development of cardiac [[arrhythmias]] such as [[ventricular tachycardia]] and/or [[heart block]]
 
*[[Heart failure]] with concomitant [[rash]], [[fever]], or peripheral [[eosinophilia]]
1. [[Heart failure]] of >3 months’ duration associated with a [[dilated left ventricle]] and new ventricular [[arrhythmias]], second- or third-degree [[heart block]], or failure to respond to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
*Cardiac dysfunction thought to be secondary to the following conditions as the results of endomyocardial biopsy may alter the therapy:
 
**[[Collagen vascular disease]]s:
2. [[Heart failure]] associated with a DCM of any duration associated with suspected allergic reaction and/or [[eosinophilia]]. ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
***[[Systemic lupus erythematosus]]
 
***[[Scleroderma]]
3. [[Heart failure]] associated with suspected [[anthracycline]] [[cardiomyopathy]]. ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
***[[Polyarteritis nodosa|Polyarteritis nodosum]]
**Infiltrative diseases:
***[[Amyloidosis]]: These patients are not eligible for [[cardiac  transplantation]].
***[[Sarcoidosis]]
***[[Hemachromatosis]]
**[[Giant cell myocarditis]]: Myocardial biopsy may optimize the management of these patients by identifying patients who may benefit from early [[heart transplantation]].<ref name="pmid9197214">{{cite journal| author=Cooper LT, Berry GJ, Shabetai R| title=Idiopathic giant-cell myocarditis--natural history and treatment. Multicenter Giant Cell Myocarditis Study Group Investigators. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1997 | volume= 336 | issue= 26 | pages= 1860-6 | pmid=9197214 | doi=10.1056/NEJM199706263362603 | pmc= | url= }} </ref>


4. Heart failure associated with unexplained [[restrictive cardiomyopathy]]. ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
==Complications of Endomyocardial Biopsy==


5. Suspected [[cardiac tumor]]s. ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
*Complications may be as high as 6% as observed in a series where 546 patients with cardiomyopathy underwent right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy.<ref name="pmid1729344">{{cite journal| author=Deckers JW, Hare JM, Baughman KL| title=Complications of transvenous right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy in adult patients with cardiomyopathy: a seven-year survey of 546 consecutive diagnostic procedures in a tertiary referral center. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 1992 | volume= 19 | issue= 1 | pages= 43-7 | pmid=1729344 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1729344  }} </ref> Several other studies reported the incidence of complications to be 0.5 to 1.5%.<ref name="pmid20713901">{{cite journal| author=Yilmaz A, Kindermann I, Kindermann M, Mahfoud F, Ukena C, Athanasiadis A et al.| title=Comparative evaluation of left and right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy: differences in complication rate and diagnostic performance. | journal=Circulation | year= 2010 | volume= 122 | issue= 9 | pages= 900-9 | pmid=20713901 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924167 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20713901  }} </ref><ref name="pmid18838566">{{cite journal| author=Holzmann M, Nicko A, Kühl U, Noutsias M, Poller W, Hoffmann W et al.| title=Complication rate of right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy via the femoral approach: a retrospective and prospective study analyzing 3048 diagnostic procedures over an 11-year period. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 118 | issue= 17 | pages= 1722-8 | pmid=18838566 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.743427 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18838566  }} </ref>


6. Unexplained [[cardiomyopathy]] in children. ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
*Complications of endomyocardial biopsy include:<ref name="pmid20713901">{{cite journal| author=Yilmaz A, Kindermann I, Kindermann M, Mahfoud F, Ukena C, Athanasiadis A et al.| title=Comparative evaluation of left and right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy: differences in complication rate and diagnostic performance. | journal=Circulation | year= 2010 | volume= 122 | issue= 9 | pages= 900-9 | pmid=20713901 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924167 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20713901  }} </ref><ref name="pmid17959655">{{cite journal| author=Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U et al.| title=The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. | journal=Circulation | year= 2007 | volume= 116 | issue= 19 | pages= 2216-33 | pmid=17959655 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.186093 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17959655  }} </ref>
:*Myocardial perforation leading to [[pericardial tamponade]]
:*[[Heart block]]
:*[[Pulmonary embolization]]
:*[[Pneumothorax]]  
:*[[Nerve injury]]
:*[[Hematoma]]
:*[[Tricuspid valve]] damage
:*[[Arteriovenous fistula]]
:*[[Deep venous thrombosis]]
:*[[Bleeding]] at the puncture site (venous/arterial due to accidental arterial puncture)
:*[[Arrhythmias]] ([[supraventricular tachycardia]]/[[ventricular tachycardia]]/[[complete heart block]])  
:*[[Tricuspid valve]] damage
:*[[Coronary artery]] to [[right ventricle]] [[fistula]]


'''Class IIb'''
== 2009 ACC/AHA Focused Update and 2005 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult (DO NOT EDIT) <ref name="pmid19324967">Jessup M, Abraham WT, Casey DE, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG et al. (2009) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19324967 2009 focused update: ACCF/AHA Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation.] ''Circulation'' 119 (14):1977-2016. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192064 DOI:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192064] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/19324967 19324967]</ref>==


1. New-onset heart failure of 2 weeks’ to 3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle, without new ventricular arrhythmias or second- or third-degree heart block, that responds to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. ''(Level of Evidence: B)''
===Endomyocardial Biopsy in Patients Presenting With Heart Failure (DO NOT EDIT) <ref name="pmid19324967">Jessup M, Abraham WT, Casey DE, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG et al. (2009) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19324967 2009 focused update: ACCF/AHA Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation.] ''Circulation'' 119 (14):1977-2016. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192064 DOI:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192064] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/19324967 19324967]</ref>===


2. Heart failure of >3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle, without new ventricular arrhythmias or second- or third-degree heart block, that responds to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
{|class="wikitable" style="width:80%"
|-
| colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:LightCoral"| [[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Classification of Recommendations|Class III]] (No Benefit)
|-
| bgcolor="LightCoral"|<nowiki>"</nowiki> '''1.''' Endomyocardial biopsy should not be performed in the routine evaluation of patients with [[heart failure]].<ref name="pmid17959655">{{cite journal| author=Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U et al.| title=The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. | journal=Circulation | year= 2007 | volume= 116 | issue= 19 | pages= 2216-33 | pmid=17959655 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.186093 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17959655  }} </ref> ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
|}


3. Heart failure associated with unexplained HCM. ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
{|class="wikitable" style="width:80%"
|-
| colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:LemonChiffon"| [[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Classification of Recommendations|Class IIa]]
|-
| bgcolor="LemonChiffon"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''1.''' Endomyocardial biopsy can be useful in patients presenting with [[heart failure]] when a specific diagnosis is suspected that would influence therapy.<ref name="pmid17959655">{{cite journal| author=Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U et al.| title=The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. | journal=Circulation | year= 2007 | volume= 116 | issue= 19 | pages= 2216-33 | pmid=17959655 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.186093 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17959655  }} </ref> ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
|}


4. Suspected ARVD/C. ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
==2007 AHA/ACCF/ESC Scientific Statement: The Role of Endomyocardial Biopsy (EMB) in Fourteen Clinical Scenarios<ref name="pmid17959655">{{cite journal| author=Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U et al.| title=The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. | journal=Circulation | year= 2007 | volume= 116 | issue= 19 | pages= 2216-33 | pmid=17959655 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.186093 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17959655  }} </ref>==


5. Unexplained ventricular arrhythmias. ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
{|class="wikitable" style="width:80%"
|-
| colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:LightGreen"|[[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Classification of Recommendations|Class I]]


'''Class III'''
|-
| bgcolor="LightGreen"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''1.''' EMB should be performed in the setting of unexplained, new-onset [[heart failure]] of less than 2 weeks’ duration associated with a normal-sized or [[dilated left ventricle]] and hemodynamic compromise. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: B]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>


1. Unexplained [[atrial fibrillation]]. ''(Level of Evidence: C)''
|-
}}
| bgcolor="LightGreen"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''2.''' EMB should be performed in the setting of unexplained, new-onset [[heart failure]] of 2 weeks’ to 3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle and new [[ventricular arrhythmias]], second- or third-degree [[heart block]], or failure to respond to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: B]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
|}


==Indications for endomyocardial biopsy<ref name="pmid11605687">{{cite journal| author=Wu LA, Lapeyre AC, Cooper LT| title=Current role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis. | journal=Mayo Clin Proc | year= 2001 | volume= 76 | issue= 10 | pages= 1030-8 | pmid=11605687 | doi= | pmc= | url= }} </ref><ref name="pmid16476862">{{cite journal| author=Magnani JW, Dec GW| title=Myocarditis: current trends in diagnosis and treatment. | journal=Circulation | year= 2006 | volume= 113 | issue= 6 | pages= 876-90 | pmid=16476862 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.584532 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16476862  }} </ref>==
{|class="wikitable" style="width:80%"
*Subacute or acute symptoms of [[heart failure]] refractory to standard management
|-
*Rapid worsening of [[ejection fraction]] despite standard pharmacological therapy
|colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:LightCoral"| [[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Classification of Recommendations|Class III]] (No Benefit)
*Development of cardiac [[arrhythmias]] such as [[ventricular tachycardia]] and [[heart block]]s
|-
*[[Heart failure]] with concomitant rash, fever, or peripheral [[eosinophilia]]
|bgcolor="LightCoral"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''1.''' EMB should not be performed in the setting of unexplained [[atrial fibrillation]]. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
*Cardiac dysfunction secondary to following causes as biopsy may change or modify the therapy:
|}
**[[Collagen vascular disease]]:
***[[Systemic lupus erythematosus]]
***[[Scleroderma]]
***[[Polyarteritis nodosa|Polyarteritis nodosum]]
**Infiltrative diseases:
***[[Amyloidosis]]
***[[Sarcoidosis]]
***[[Hemachromatosis]]
**[[Giant cell myocarditis]]


==Complications of Endomyocardial Biopsy<ref name="pmid17959655">{{cite journal| author=Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U et al.| title=The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. | journal=Circulation | year= 2007 | volume= 116 | issue= 19 | pages= 2216-33 | pmid=17959655 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.186093 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17959655  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20713901">{{cite journal| author=Yilmaz A, Kindermann I, Kindermann M, Mahfoud F, Ukena C, Athanasiadis A et al.| title=Comparative evaluation of left and right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy: differences in complication rate and diagnostic performance. | journal=Circulation | year= 2010 | volume= 122 | issue= 9 | pages= 900-9 | pmid=20713901 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924167 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20713901  }} </ref>==
{|class="wikitable" style="width:80%"
Complications may be as high as 6% as observed in a series where 546 patients with cardiomyopathy underwent right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy<ref name="pmid1729344">{{cite journal| author=Deckers JW, Hare JM, Baughman KL| title=Complications of transvenous right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy in adult patients with cardiomyopathy: a seven-year survey of 546 consecutive diagnostic procedures in a tertiary referral center. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 1992 | volume= 19 | issue= 1 | pages= 43-7 | pmid=1729344 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1729344  }} </ref>. Other studies reported the incidence of complications to be lower at 0.5 to 1.5%<ref name="pmid20713901">{{cite journal| author=Yilmaz A, Kindermann I, Kindermann M, Mahfoud F, Ukena C, Athanasiadis A et al.| title=Comparative evaluation of left and right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy: differences in complication rate and diagnostic performance. | journal=Circulation | year= 2010 | volume= 122 | issue= 9 | pages= 900-9 | pmid=20713901 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924167 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20713901  }} </ref><ref name="pmid18838566">{{cite journal| author=Holzmann M, Nicko A, Kühl U, Noutsias M, Poller W, Hoffmann W et al.| title=Complication rate of right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy via the femoral approach: a retrospective and prospective study analyzing 3048 diagnostic procedures over an 11-year period. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 118 | issue= 17 | pages= 1722-8 | pmid=18838566 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.743427 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18838566  }} </ref>.
|-
| colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:LemonChiffon"| [[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Classification of Recommendations|Class IIa]]
|-
|bgcolor="LemonChiffon"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''1.''' EMB is reasonable in the clinical setting of unexplained [[heart failure]] of more than 3 months’ duration associated with a [[dilated left ventricle]] and new [[ventricular arrhythmias]], [[Second degree AV block|second-]] or [[Third degree AV block|third-degree]] [[heart block]], or failure to respond to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
|-
|bgcolor="LemonChiffon"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''2.''' EMB is reasonable in the setting of unexplained [[heart failure]] associated with a [[Dilated cardiomyopathy|dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM)]] of any duration associated with suspected allergic reaction and/or [[eosinophilia]]. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
|-
|bgcolor="LemonChiffon"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''3.''' EMB is reasonable in the setting of unexplained [[heart failure]] associated with suspected [[anthracycline]] [[cardiomyopathy]]. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
|-
|bgcolor="LemonChiffon"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''4.''' EMB is reasonable in the setting of [[heart failure]] associated with unexplained [[restrictive cardiomyopathy]]. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
|-
|bgcolor="LemonChiffon"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''5.''' EMB is reasonable in the setting of suspected [[cardiac tumor]]s. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
|-
|bgcolor="LemonChiffon"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''6.''' EMB is reasonable in the setting of unexplained [[cardiomyopathy]] in children. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
|}


*Myocardial perforation leading to [[pericardial tamponade]]
{|class="wikitable" style="width:80%"
*[[Heart block]]
|-
*[[Pulmonary embolization]]  
| colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:LemonChiffon"| [[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Classification of Recommendations|Class IIb]]
*[[Arrhythmias]]
|-
*[[Pneumothorax]]  
|bgcolor="LemonChiffon"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''1.''' EMB may be considered in the setting of unexplained, new-onset [[heart failure]] of 2 weeks’ to 3 months’ duration associated with a [[dilated left ventricle]], without new [[ventricular arrhythmias]] or [[Second degree AV block|second-]] or [[Third degree AV block|third-degree]] [[heart block]], that responds to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: B]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
*[[Nerve injury]]
|-
*[[Hematoma]]
|bgcolor="LemonChiffon"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''2.''' EMB may be considered in the setting of unexplained [[heart failure]] of  more than 3 months’ duration associated with a [[dilated left ventricle]], without new [[ventricular arrhythmias]] or [[Second degree AV block|second-]] or [[Third degree AV block|third-degree]] [[heart block]], that responds to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
*[[Tricuspid valve]] damage
|-
*[[Arteriovenous fistula]]
|bgcolor="LemonChiffon"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''3.''' EMB may be considered in the setting of [[heart failure]] associated with unexplained [[Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy|hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM)]]. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
*[[Deep venous thrombosis]]
|-
|bgcolor="LemonChiffon"| <nowiki>"</nowiki>'''4.''' EMB may be considered in the setting of suspected [[Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia|arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (ARVD/C)]]. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
|-
|bgcolor="LemonChiffon"|<nowiki>"</nowiki>'''5.''' EMB may be considered in the setting of unexplained unexplained [[ventricular arrhythmias]]. ''([[ACC AHA guidelines classification scheme#Level of Evidence|Level of Evidence: C]])'' <nowiki>"</nowiki>
|}


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
 
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Latest revision as of 22:51, 29 July 2020

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief: Varun Kumar M.B.B.S., Maliha Shakil, M.D. [2]

Overview

Endomyocardial biopsy remains the gold standard test to evaluate for the presence of and to subclassify the type of myocarditis. A small tissue sample of the endocardium and myocardium is obtained via right sided cardiac catheterization. The sample is then evaluated by a pathologist using immunochemistry and special staining techniques as necessary. Histopathological features include abundant edema in the myocardial interstitium and an inflammatory infiltrate which is rich in lymphocytes and macrophages. Focal destruction of myocytes as a result of the inflammatory process results in left ventricular dysfunction.[1] Endomyocardial biopsy is recommended when the results would identify an underlying disease that is amenable to therapy. Routine performance of endomyocardial biopsy is not recommended in all patients with myocarditis.

Endomyocardial Biopsy

  • The Heart Failure Society of America recommends that performance of endomyocardial biopsy should be considered when cardiac function deteriorates acutely with an unknown etiology that is unresponsive to medical therapy (Strength of Evidence = B).[2]
  • Non-specific findings such as hypertrophy, cell loss, and fibrosis may be noted on biopsy. However, biopsy findings that significantly impact patient management have not been conclusively established.[3] Although inflammatory changes in the myocardium may be detected in viral myocarditis, the majority of patients with biopsy proven myocarditis improve with supportive therapy alone without the need for antiviral or anti-inflammatory treatment.[4] Endomyocardial biopsy has a low sensitivity and specificity which could be explained by the focal and transient nature of the inflammatory infiltrates.[5][6]

Standardizing the Interpretation of Endomyocardial Biopsies: The Dallas Criteria

Histologically, both active inflammatory infiltrate within the myocardium and associated myocyte necrosis (the Dallas pathologic criteria) are present in myocarditis. Despite its limitations, the Dallas criteria have established uniform histologic criteria diagnosing myocarditis and have substantially reduced the variability in diagnosing the disease. Some of the criteria are as follows:[7]

“

Active myocarditis:

  • The presence of an inflammatory infiltrate of the myocardium with necrosis and/or degeneration of adjacent myocytes not typical of the ischaemic damage associated with coronary artery disease.

Borderline myocarditis:

  • The presence of an inflammatory infiltrate of the myocardium without necrosis or degeneration of adjacent myocytes.
 ”

Scenarios in Which Endomyocardial Biopsy May Be Useful[8][9]

Complications of Endomyocardial Biopsy

  • Complications may be as high as 6% as observed in a series where 546 patients with cardiomyopathy underwent right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy.[11] Several other studies reported the incidence of complications to be 0.5 to 1.5%.[12][13]
  • Complications of endomyocardial biopsy include:[12][14]

2009 ACC/AHA Focused Update and 2005 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult (DO NOT EDIT) [15]

Endomyocardial Biopsy in Patients Presenting With Heart Failure (DO NOT EDIT) [15]

Class III (No Benefit)
" 1. Endomyocardial biopsy should not be performed in the routine evaluation of patients with heart failure.[14] (Level of Evidence: C) "
Class IIa
"1. Endomyocardial biopsy can be useful in patients presenting with heart failure when a specific diagnosis is suspected that would influence therapy.[14] (Level of Evidence: C) "

2007 AHA/ACCF/ESC Scientific Statement: The Role of Endomyocardial Biopsy (EMB) in Fourteen Clinical Scenarios[14]

Class I
"1. EMB should be performed in the setting of unexplained, new-onset heart failure of less than 2 weeks’ duration associated with a normal-sized or dilated left ventricle and hemodynamic compromise. (Level of Evidence: B) "
"2. EMB should be performed in the setting of unexplained, new-onset heart failure of 2 weeks’ to 3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle and new ventricular arrhythmias, second- or third-degree heart block, or failure to respond to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. (Level of Evidence: B) "
Class III (No Benefit)
"1. EMB should not be performed in the setting of unexplained atrial fibrillation. (Level of Evidence: C) "
Class IIa
"1. EMB is reasonable in the clinical setting of unexplained heart failure of more than 3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle and new ventricular arrhythmias, second- or third-degree heart block, or failure to respond to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. (Level of Evidence: C) "
"2. EMB is reasonable in the setting of unexplained heart failure associated with a dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) of any duration associated with suspected allergic reaction and/or eosinophilia. (Level of Evidence: C) "
"3. EMB is reasonable in the setting of unexplained heart failure associated with suspected anthracycline cardiomyopathy. (Level of Evidence: C) "
"4. EMB is reasonable in the setting of heart failure associated with unexplained restrictive cardiomyopathy. (Level of Evidence: C) "
"5. EMB is reasonable in the setting of suspected cardiac tumors. (Level of Evidence: C) "
"6. EMB is reasonable in the setting of unexplained cardiomyopathy in children. (Level of Evidence: C) "
Class IIb
"1. EMB may be considered in the setting of unexplained, new-onset heart failure of 2 weeks’ to 3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle, without new ventricular arrhythmias or second- or third-degree heart block, that responds to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. (Level of Evidence: B) "
"2. EMB may be considered in the setting of unexplained heart failure of more than 3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle, without new ventricular arrhythmias or second- or third-degree heart block, that responds to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. (Level of Evidence: C) "
"3. EMB may be considered in the setting of heart failure associated with unexplained hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). (Level of Evidence: C) "
"4. EMB may be considered in the setting of suspected arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (ARVD/C). (Level of Evidence: C) "
"5. EMB may be considered in the setting of unexplained unexplained ventricular arrhythmias. (Level of Evidence: C) "

References

  1. ↑ Feldman AM, McNamara D (2000). "Myocarditis". N Engl J Med. 343 (19): 1388–98. doi:10.1056/NEJM200011093431908. PMID 11070105.
  2. ↑ Heart Failure Society of America. Lindenfeld J, Albert NM, Boehmer JP, Collins SP, Ezekowitz JA; et al. (2010). "HFSA 2010 Comprehensive Heart Failure Practice Guideline". J Card Fail. 16 (6): e1–194. doi:10.1016/j.cardfail.2010.04.004. PMID 20610207. Unknown parameter |http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ Chow LC, Dittrich HC, Shabetai R (1988). "Endomyocardial biopsy in patients with unexplained congestive heart failure". Ann Intern Med. 109 (7): 535–9. PMID 3421562.
  4. ↑ Mason JW, O'Connell JB, Herskowitz A, Rose NR, McManus BM, Billingham ME; et al. (1995). "A clinical trial of immunosuppressive therapy for myocarditis. The Myocarditis Treatment Trial Investigators". N Engl J Med. 333 (5): 269–75. doi:10.1056/NEJM199508033330501. PMID 7596370.
  5. ↑ Mahrholdt H, Goedecke C, Wagner A, Meinhardt G, Athanasiadis A, Vogelsberg H; et al. (2004). "Cardiovascular magnetic resonance assessment of human myocarditis: a comparison to histology and molecular pathology". Circulation. 109 (10): 1250–8. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000118493.13323.81. PMID 14993139. Unknown parameter |http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom= ignored (help)
  6. ↑ Hauck AJ, Kearney DL, Edwards WD (1989). "Evaluation of postmortem endomyocardial biopsy specimens from 38 patients with lymphocytic myocarditis: implications for role of sampling error". Mayo Clin Proc. 64 (10): 1235–45. PMID 2593714.
  7. ↑ Aretz HT, Billingham ME, Edwards WD, Factor SM, Fallon JT, Fenoglio JJ; et al. (1987). "Myocarditis. A histopathologic definition and classification". Am J Cardiovasc Pathol. 1 (1): 3–14. PMID 3455232.
  8. ↑ Wu LA, Lapeyre AC, Cooper LT (2001). "Current role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis". Mayo Clin Proc. 76 (10): 1030–8. PMID 11605687.
  9. ↑ Magnani JW, Dec GW (2006). "Myocarditis: current trends in diagnosis and treatment". Circulation. 113 (6): 876–90. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.584532. PMID 16476862. Unknown parameter |http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom= ignored (help)
  10. ↑ Cooper LT, Berry GJ, Shabetai R (1997). "Idiopathic giant-cell myocarditis--natural history and treatment. Multicenter Giant Cell Myocarditis Study Group Investigators". N Engl J Med. 336 (26): 1860–6. doi:10.1056/NEJM199706263362603. PMID 9197214.
  11. ↑ Deckers JW, Hare JM, Baughman KL (1992). "Complications of transvenous right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy in adult patients with cardiomyopathy: a seven-year survey of 546 consecutive diagnostic procedures in a tertiary referral center". J Am Coll Cardiol. 19 (1): 43–7. PMID 1729344.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Yilmaz A, Kindermann I, Kindermann M, Mahfoud F, Ukena C, Athanasiadis A; et al. (2010). "Comparative evaluation of left and right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy: differences in complication rate and diagnostic performance". Circulation. 122 (9): 900–9. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924167. PMID 20713901.
  13. ↑ Holzmann M, Nicko A, Kühl U, Noutsias M, Poller W, Hoffmann W; et al. (2008). "Complication rate of right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy via the femoral approach: a retrospective and prospective study analyzing 3048 diagnostic procedures over an 11-year period". Circulation. 118 (17): 1722–8. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.743427. PMID 18838566.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U; et al. (2007). "The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology". Circulation. 116 (19): 2216–33. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.186093. PMID 17959655.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Jessup M, Abraham WT, Casey DE, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG et al. (2009) 2009 focused update: ACCF/AHA Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. Circulation 119 (14):1977-2016. DOI:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192064 PMID: 19324967

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