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| {{CMG}} | | __NOTOC__ |
| | {{CMG}} {{AE}} {{sali}} |
| {{Prostate cancer}} | | {{Prostate cancer}} |
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| ==Overview== | | ==Overview== |
| | There are no established causes for prostate cancer. To review risk factors for the development of prostate cancer [[Prostate cancer risk factors|click here.]] |
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| ==Etiology== | | ==Causes== |
| The specific causes of prostate cancer remain unknown.<ref>{{cite journal| first=Ann W.| last=Hsing| coauthors=Anand P. Chokkalingam| title=Prostate cancer epidemiology| journal=Frontiers in Bioscience| volume=11| pages=1388–1413| month=May 1| year=2006| url=http://www.bioscience.org/2006/v11/af/1891/fulltext.htm| doi=10.2741/1891}}</ref> A man's risk of developing prostate cancer is related to his [[aging|age]], [[genetics]], [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], [[lifestyle]], [[medication]]s, and other factors. The primary risk factor is age. Prostate cancer is uncommon in men less than 45, but becomes more common with advancing age. The average age at the time of diagnosis is 70.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Hankey| first=BF| coauthors=Feuer EJ, Clegg LX, Hayes RB, Legler JM, Prorok PC, Ries LA, Merrill RM, Kaplan RS| title=Cancer surveillance series: interpreting trends in prostate cancer—part I: Evidence of the effects of screening in recent prostate cancer incidence, mortality, and survival rates| journal=J Natl Cancer Inst| year=1999| month=June 16| volume=91| issue=12| pages=1017–24| pmid=10379964| doi=10.1093/jnci/91.12.1017}}</ref> However, many men never know they have prostate cancer. Autopsy studies of Chinese, German, Israeli, Jamaican, Swedish, and Ugandan men who died of other causes have found prostate cancer in thirty percent of men in their 50s, and in eighty percent of men in their 70s.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Breslow| first=N| coauthors=Chan CW, Dhom G, Drury RA, Franks LM, Gellei B, Lee YS, Lundberg S, Sparke B, Sternby NH, Tulinius H.| title=Latent carcinoma of prostate at autopsy in seven areas. The International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyons, France| journal=Int J Cancer| year=1977| month=November 15| volume=20| issue=5| pages=680–8| pmid=924691| doi=10.1002/ijc.2910200506}}</ref> In the year 2005 in the United States, there were an estimated 230,000 new cases of prostate cancer and 30,000 deaths due to prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Jemal A| coauthors=Murray T, Ward E, Samuels A, Tiwari RC, Ghafoor A, Feuer EJ, Thun MJ| title=Cancer statistics, 2005| journal=CA Cancer J Clin| year=2005| month=Jan-Feb| volume=55| issue=1| pages=10–30| pmid=15661684}} Erratum in: CA Cancer J Clin. 2005 Jul-Aug;55(4):259</ref>
| | There are no known direct causes for prostate cancer. To review risk factors for the development of prostate cancer [[Prostate cancer risk factors|click here.]]<ref>{{cite journal| first=Ann W.| last=Hsing| coauthors=Anand P. Chokkalingam| title=Prostate cancer epidemiology| journal=Frontiers in Bioscience| volume=11| pages=1388–1413| month=May 1| year=2006| url=http://dceg.cancer.gov/files/hsing1113882006.pdf| doi=10.2741/1891}}</ref> |
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| A man's genetic background contributes to his risk of developing prostate cancer. This is suggested by an increased [[incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] of prostate cancer found in certain racial groups, in identical [[twin]]s of men with prostate cancer, and in men with certain [[gene]]s. In the United States, prostate cancer more commonly affects black men than white or Hispanic men, and is also more deadly in black men.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Hoffman| first=RM| coauthors=Gilliland FD; Eley JW; Harlan LC; Stephenson RA; Stanford JL; Albertson PC; Hamilton AS; Hunt WC; Potosky AL| title=Racial and ethnic differences in advanced-stage prostate cancer: the Prostate Cancer Outcomes Study| journal=J Natl Cancer Inst| year=2001| month=March 7| volume=93| issue=5| pages=388–95| pmid=11238701| doi=10.1093/jnci/93.5.388}}</ref> Men who have a brother or father with prostate cancer have twice the usual risk of developing prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Steinberg| first=GD| coauthors=Carter BS; Beaty TH; Childs B; Walsh PC| title=Family history and the risk of prostate cancer| journal=Prostate| year=1990| volume=17| issue=4| pages=337–47| pmid=2251225| doi=10.1002/pros.2990170409}}</ref> [[Twin study|Studies of twins]] in Scandinavia suggest that forty percent of prostate cancer risk can be explained by [[heritability|inherited factors]].<ref>{{cite journal| last=Lichtenstein| first=P| coauthors=Holm NV; Verkasalo PK; Iliadou A; Kaprio J; Koskenvuo M; Pukkala E; Skytthe A; Hemminki K| title=Environmental and heritable factors in the causation of cancer—analyses of cohorts of twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland| journal=N Engl J Med| year=2000| month=July 13| volume=343| issue=2| pages=78–85| pmid=10891514| doi=10.1056/NEJM200007133430201}}</ref> However, no single gene is responsible for prostate cancer; many different genes have been implicated. Two genes (''[[BRCA1]]'' and ''[[BRCA2]]'') that are important risk factors for [[ovarian cancer]] and [[breast cancer]] in women have also been implicated in prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Struewing| first=JP| coauthors=Hartge P; Wacholder S; Baker SM; Berlin M; McAdams M; Timmerman MM; Brody LC; Tucker MA| title=The risk of cancer associated with specific mutations of BRCA1 and BRCA2 among Ashkenazi Jews| journal=N Engl J Med| year=1997| month=May 15| volume=336| issue=20| pages=1401–8| pmid=9145676| doi=10.1056/NEJM199705153362001}}</ref>
| | ==References== |
| | | {{Reflist|2}} |
| Dietary amounts of certain [[food]]s, [[vitamin]]s, and [[dietary mineral|minerals]] can contribute to prostate cancer risk. Men with higher serum levels of the short-chain [[Omega-6 fatty acid|ω-6 fatty acid]] [[linoleic acid]] have higher rates of prostate cancer. However, the same series of studies showed that men with elevated levels of long-chain ω-3 ([[eicosapentaenoic acid|EPA]] and [[docosahexaenoic acid|DHA]]) had lowered incidence.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gann, PH and Giovannucci|title=Prostate Cancer and Nutrition|year=2005|accessmonthday=February 20 |accessyear=2006 |url= http://www.prostatecancerfoundation.org/atf/cf/%7B705B3273-F2EF-4EF6-A653-E15C5D8BB6B1%7D/Nutrition_Guide.pdf|format=PDF}} in .pdf format.</ref> A long-term study reports that "blood levels of trans fatty acids, in particular [[trans fats]] resulting from the hydrogenation of vegetable oils, are associated with an increased prostate cancer risk."<ref>Chavarro et al., "A prospective study of blood trans fatty acid levels and risk of prostate cancer," Proc. Amer. Assoc. Cancer Res., Volume 47, 2006 [http://www.aacrmeetingabstracts.org/cgi/content/abstract/2006/1/943]. See also [http://www.cancersupportivecare.com/nutritionprostate.pdf Ledesma 2004 Nutrition & prostate cancer].</ref> Other dietary factors that may increase prostate cancer risk include low intake of [[vitamin E]] (Vitamin E is found in green, leafy vegetables), [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s (found in fatty fishes like salmon), and the mineral [[selenium]]. A study in 2007 cast doubt on the effectiveness of lycopene (found in tomatoes) in reducing the risk of prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid17507623">{{cite journal | author = Peters U, Leitzmann MF, Chatterjee N, Wang Y, Albanes D, Gelmann EP, Friesen MD, Riboli E, Hayes RB | title = Serum lycopene, other carotenoids, and prostate cancer risk: a nested case-control study in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian cancer screening trial | journal = Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 962–8 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17507623 | doi = 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-06-0861 | url = http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17507623| accessdate = 2007-12-17}}</ref> Lower [[blood]] levels of [[vitamin D]] also may increase the risk of developing prostate cancer. This may be linked to lower exposure to [[ultraviolet radiation|ultraviolet (UV) light]], since UV light exposure can increase vitamin D in the body.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Schulman| first=CC| coauthors=Ekane S; Zlotta AR| title=Nutrition and prostate cancer: evidence or suspicion?| journal=Urology| year=2001| month=September| volume=58| issue=3| pages=318–34| pmid=11549473| doi=10.1016/S0090-4295(01)01262-6}}</ref>
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| There are also some links between prostate cancer and medications, medical procedures, and medical conditions. Daily use of [[non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs|anti-inflammatory medicines]] such as [[aspirin]], [[ibuprofen]], or [[naproxen sodium|naproxen]] may decrease prostate cancer risk.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Jacobs| first=EJ| coauthors=Rodriguez C, Mondul AM, Connell CJ, Henley SJ, Calle EE, Thun MJ| title=A large cohort study of aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and prostate cancer incidence| journal=J Natl Cancer Inst| year=2005| month=July 6| volume=97| issue=13| pages=975–80| pmid=15998950}}</ref> Use of the [[hypolipidaemic agent|cholesterol-lowering drugs]] known as the [[statin]]s may also decrease prostate cancer risk.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Shannon| first=J| coauthors=Tewoderos S, Garzotto M, Beer TM, Derenick R, Palma A, Farris PE| title=Statins and prostate cancer risk: a case-control study| journal=Am J Epidemiol| year=2005| month=August 15| volume=162| issue=4| pages=318–25| pmid=16014776| doi=10.1093/aje/kwi203}} Epub 2005 July 13</ref> More frequent ejaculation also may decrease a man's risk of prostate cancer. One study showed that men who ejaculated five times a week in their 20s had a decreased rate of prostate cancer, though others have shown no benefit.<ref name="pmid12887469">{{cite journal | author = Giles GG, Severi G, English DR, McCredie MR, Borland R, Boyle P, Hopper JL | title = Sexual factors and prostate cancer | journal = BJU Int. | volume = 92 | issue = 3 | pages = 211–6 | year = 2003 | month = August | pmid = 12887469 | doi = 10.1046/j.1464-410X.2003.04319.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last= Leitzmann | first= Michael F. | title= Ejaculation Frequency and Subsequent Risk of Prostate Cancer | journal= JAMA | year= 2004 | month= April 7 | volume= 291 | issue= 13 | pages= 1578–86|id= 2004;291:1578-1586 | doi= 10.1001/jama.291.13.1578 | pmid= 15069045| unused_data= |Elizabeth A. Platz, ScD; Meir J. Stampfer, MD; Walter C. Willett, MD; Edward Giovannucci, MD}}[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15069045&query_hl=2&itool=pubmed_docsum| PMID: 15069045]</ref> [[Infection]] or [[inflammation]] of the prostate ([[prostatitis]]) may increase the chance for prostate cancer. In particular, infection with the [[sexually transmitted infection]]s [[Chlamydia infection|chlamydia]], [[gonorrhea]], or [[syphilis]] seems to increase risk.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Dennis| first=LK| coauthors=Lynch CF; Torner JC| title=Epidemiologic association between prostatitis and prostate cancer| journal=Urology| year=2002| month=July| volume=60| issue=1| pages=78–83| pmid=12100928| doi=10.1016/S0090-4295(02)01637-0}}</ref>
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| Finally, [[obesity]]<ref>{{cite journal| last=Calle| first= EE| coauthors=Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ| title=Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults| journal=N Engl J Med| year=2003 | month=April 24| volume=348| issue=17| pages=1625–38| pmid=12711737| doi=10.1056/NEJMoa021423}}</ref>
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| and elevated blood levels of [[testosterone]]<ref>{{cite journal| last=Gann| first= PH| coauthors=Hennekens CH, Ma J, Longcope C, Stampfer MJ| title=Prospective study of sex hormone levels and risk of prostate cancer| journal=J Natl Cancer Inst| year=1996| month=August 21| volume=88| issue=16| pages=1118–26| pmid=8757191| doi=10.1093/jnci/88.16.1118}}</ref>
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| may increase the risk for prostate cancer.
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| Research released in May 2007, found that US war veterans who had been exposed to Agent Orange had a 48% increased risk of prostate cancer recurrence following surgery.<ref name="aorange"> {{cite web|url=https://my.mcg.edu/portal/page/portal/News/archive/2007/Veterans%20exposed%20to%20Agent%20%20Orange%20have%20higher%20rates%20of%20prost |title=Veterans exposed to Agent Orange have higher rates of prostate cancer recurrence |date=May 20, 2007 |work=Medical College of Georgia News }}</ref>
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| Prostate cancer risk can be decreased by modifying known risk factors for prostate cancer, such as decreasing intake of animal fat.<ref>{{cite journal | author= | title=Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets | journal=J Am Diet Assoc | year=2003 | pages=748–65 | volume=103 | issue=6 | pmid=12778049| doi=10.1053/jada.2003.50142}}</ref>
| | [[Category:Disease]] |
| | [[Category:Urology]] |
| | [[Category:Types of cancer]] |
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| One research study, by the [[The Cancer Council Australia|Cancer Council Victoria]], has shown that men who report that they regularly ("more than five times per week") [[masturbation|masturbate]] have up to one third fewer occurrences of prostate cancer.<ref name="BBC_NEWS_Masturbation">{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3072021.stm | title = Masturbation 'cuts cancer risk' | author = | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = 2003-07-16 | format = | work = Health | publisher = BBC NEWS | pages = | language = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | quote = | accessdate = 2008-04-24 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12887469"/> The researchers [[hypothesis|hypothesize]] that this could be because regular ejaculation reduces the buildup of [[cancer|carcinogenic]] deposits such as 3-[[methylcholanthrene]], produced from the breakdown of cholesterol, which could damage the cells lining the prostate. The researchers also speculated that frequent ejaculation may cause the prostate to mature fully, making it less susceptible to carcinogens. It is also possible that there is another factor (such as hormone levels) that is a [[Correlation does not imply causation|common cause]] of both a reduced susceptibility to prostate cancer and a tendency toward frequent masturbation.
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| There is also some evidence that frequent sexual intercourse is associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer, although contrarily the risks associated with STDs have been shown to increase the risk of prostate cancer.<ref name="BBC_NEWS_Masturbation"/><ref name="pmid12887469"/> Once the lining of the prostate is affected with cancer, the only known treatments are surgery and radiation therapy. Both may limit the ability to have erections afterward.
| | [[Category:Urology]] |
| | | [[Category:Up-To-Date]] |
| ==References==
| | [[Category:Oncology]] |
| {{Reflist|2}}
| | [[Category:Medicine]] |