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{{Chagas disease}}
{{Chagas disease}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{YD}}, {{RT}}


{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{RT}}
==Overview==
The discovery of ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi|T. cruzi]]'', the parasite that causes Chagas disease, dates back to pre-Columbian times in South America. Carlos Chagas,a Brazilian [[bacteriologist]], was the first to discover the association between the Riduvid insect and ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi|T. cruzi]]''. Carlos Chagas named the [[pathogen]] ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi|T. cruzi]]'' in honor of his mentor, Oswaldo Cruz. In 1966, [[Benznidazole]] was introduced and was the first [[antimicrobial]] agent against ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi|T. cruzi]]'' [[infections]].


==Overview==
==Historical Perspective==
*The earliest evidence of Chagas disease infection dates to pre-Columbian times (9000 years ago) in South America, where positive PCR DNA sequences were discovered among Chinchorro mummies.<ref name="pmid14766963">{{cite journal| author=Aufderheide AC, Salo W, Madden M, Streitz J, Buikstra J, Guhl F et al.| title=A 9,000-year record of Chagas' disease. | journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | year= 2004 | volume= 101 | issue= 7 | pages= 2034-9 | pmid=14766963 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0307312101 | pmc=PMC357047 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14766963  }} </ref>
*The vector for ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi|T. cruzi]]'', the Reduvius (kissing/assassin) bug, was first described by Charles Darwin during his voyage of the Beagle.<ref name="pmid15145379">{{cite journal| author=Miles MA| title=The discovery of Chagas disease: progress and prejudice. | journal=Infect Dis Clin North Am | year= 2004 | volume= 18 | issue= 2 | pages= 247-60, table of contents | pmid=15145379 | doi=10.1016/j.idc.2004.01.005 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15145379  }} </ref>
*Carlos Chagas,a Brazilian [[bacteriologist]], was the first to discover the association between the triatomine Riduvid insect and ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi|T. cruzi]]''. Carlos Chagas named the pathogen ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi|T. cruzi]]'' in honor of his mentor, Oswaldo Cruz.<ref name="pmid25011546">{{cite journal| author=Steverding D| title=The history of Chagas disease. | journal=Parasit Vectors | year= 2014 | volume= 7 | issue=  | pages= 317 | pmid=25011546 | doi=10.1186/1756-3305-7-317 | pmc=PMC4105117 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25011546  }} </ref>


==History==
*Further contributions to the characteristization of ''T. cruzi'' were made by [[microbiological]] identification of the [[parasite]] were made by Stanislaus von Prowazek ([[microbiological]] characteristics of the [[parasite]]), Gaspara de Oliveria Vianna (intracellular life cycle), Alexandre Joseph Emile Brumpt (mode of vector transmission of the parasite), and Salvador Mazza ([[blood transfusion]] transmission and clinical description of the [[disease]]).<ref name="pmid25011546">{{cite journal| author=Steverding D| title=The history of Chagas disease. | journal=Parasit Vectors | year= 2014 | volume= 7 | issue= | pages= 317 | pmid=25011546 | doi=10.1186/1756-3305-7-317 | pmc=PMC4105117 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25011546  }} </ref>
The disease was named after the Brazilian [[physician]] and [[Infectology|infectologist]] [[Carlos Chagas]], who first described it in 1909<ref name=Chagas_1909>{{cite journal | author = Chagas C| title = Neue Trypanosomen | journal = Vorläufige Mitteilung. Arch. Schiff. Tropenhyg. | year = 1909 | volume = 13 | issue = | pages = 120–122 }}</ref><ref name=Redhead_2006>{{cite journal | author=Redhead SA, Cushion MT, Frenkel JK, Stringer JR | title=''Pneumocystis'' and ''Trypanosoma cruzi'': nomenclature and typifications | journal=J Eukaryot Microbiol | year=2006 | pages=2–11 | volume=53 | issue=1 | id=PMID 16441572}}</ref><ref name=WHO>WHO. [http://www.who.int/tdr/diseases/chagas/ Chagas.] Accessed 24 September 2006.</ref> but, the disease was not seen as a major [[public health]] problem in humans until the 1960s (the outbreak of Chagas' disease in Brazil in the 1920s went widely ignored<ref>{{cite web|url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-1753%28199906%2990%3A2%3C397%3AHAOAT%28%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H|title=Historical Aspects of American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas' Disease)}}</ref>).  He discovered that the intestines of Triatomidae harbored a flagellate protozoan, a new species of the ''[[Trypanosoma]]'' genus, and was able to prove experimentally that it could be transmitted to marmoset monkeys that were bitten by the infected bug.  Later studies showed that squirrel monkeys were also vulnerable to infection.<ref name=Hulsebos_1989>{{cite journal | author = Hulsebos LH| title = The effect of interleukin-2 on parasitemia and myocarditis in experimental Chagas' disease | journal = Journal of Protozoology | year = 1989 | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 293-298 }} </ref>


Chagas named the [[pathogen]]ic parasite that causes the disease ''Trypanosoma cruzi ''<ref name=Chagas_1909 /> and later that year as ''Schizotrypanum cruzi'',<ref name=Chagas_1909b>{{cite journal | author = Chagas C| title = Nova tripanozomiase humana: Estudos sobre a morfolojia e o ciclo evolutivo do Schizotrypanum cruzi n. gen., n. sp., ajente etiolojico de nova entidade morbida do homem | journal = Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz | year = 1909 | volume = 1 | issue =2 | pages = 159-218 (New human trypanosomiasis. Studies about the morphology and life-cycle of ''Schizotripanum cruzi'', etiological agent of a new morbid entity of man }}</ref> both honoring [[Oswaldo Cruz]], the noted Brazilian physician and [[epidemiologist]] who fought successfully [[epidemics]] of [[yellow fever]], [[smallpox]], and [[bubonic plague]] in Rio de Janeiro and other cities in the beginning of the 20th century. Chagas’ work is unique in the [[history of medicine]] because he was the only researcher so far to describe completely a new [[infectious disease]]: its [[pathogen]], [[Vector (biology)|vector]], [[Host (biology)|host]], clinical manifestations, and [[epidemiology]]. Nevertheless, he at least believed falsely until 1925, that the main infection route is by the bite of the insect - and not by its [[feces]], as was proposed by his colleague [[Emile Brumpt]] 1915 and assured by Silveira Dias 1932, Cardoso 1938 and Brumpt himself 1939. Chagas was also the first to unknowingly discover and illustrate the parasitic fungal genus [[Pneumocystis pneumonia|''Pneumocystis'']], later to infamously be linked to PCP ([[Pneumocystis pneumonia]] in AIDS victims).<ref name=Redhead_2006 /> Confusion between the two pathogens' life-cycles led him to briefly recognize his genus ''Schizotrypanum'', but following the description of ''Pneumocystis'' by others as an independent genus, Chagas returned to the use of the name ''Trypanosoma cruzi''.
*Benznidazole, introduced in 1966, was the first [[medical]] [[therapy]] for Chagas disease. In 1970, [[nifurtimox]] was introduced.<ref name="pmid11992141">{{cite journal| author=Rodriques Coura J, de Castro SL| title=A critical review on Chagas disease chemotherapy. | journal=Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz | year= 2002 | volume= 97 | issue= 1 | pages= 3-24 | pmid=11992141 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11992141  }} </ref>


On another historical point of view, it has been hypothesized that [[Charles Darwin]] might have suffered from this disease as a result of a bite of the so-called Great Black Bug of the Pampas (vinchuca) (see [[Charles Darwin's illness]]).  The episode was reported by Darwin in his diaries of [[the Voyage of the Beagle]] as occurring in March 1835 to the east of the Andes near Mendoza. Darwin was young and in general good health though six months previously he had been ill for a month near Valparaiso, but in 1837, almost a year after he returned to England, he began to suffer intermittently from a strange group of [[symptom]]s, becoming incapacitated for much of the rest of his life.  Attempts to test Darwin's remains at the Westminster Abbey by using modern [[PCR]] techniques were met with a refusal by the Abbey's curator.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Adler D | title=Darwin's Illness | journal=Isr J Med Sci | volume=25 | issue=4 | pages=218-21 | year=1989 | id=PMID 2496051}}</ref>
*In 1940, vector control was attempted using [[organochloride]] [[insecticides]], but these compounds proved to be ineffective against [[triatomines]]. It was not until 1980 that effective vector control by [[pyrethroid]] [[insecticides]] was introduced.<ref name="pmid10677697">{{cite journal| author=Dias J, Schofield C| title=The evolution of Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis) control after 90 years since Carlos Chagas discovery. | journal=Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz | year= 1999 | volume= 94 Suppl 1 | issue= | pages= 103-21 | pmid=10677697 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10677697  }} </ref>


==References==
==References==
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Latest revision as of 20:52, 29 July 2020

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Yazan Daaboul, M.D., Raviteja Guddeti, M.B.B.S. [2]

Overview

The discovery of T. cruzi, the parasite that causes Chagas disease, dates back to pre-Columbian times in South America. Carlos Chagas,a Brazilian bacteriologist, was the first to discover the association between the Riduvid insect and T. cruzi. Carlos Chagas named the pathogen T. cruzi in honor of his mentor, Oswaldo Cruz. In 1966, Benznidazole was introduced and was the first antimicrobial agent against T. cruzi infections.

Historical Perspective

  • The earliest evidence of Chagas disease infection dates to pre-Columbian times (9000 years ago) in South America, where positive PCR DNA sequences were discovered among Chinchorro mummies.[1]
  • The vector for T. cruzi, the Reduvius (kissing/assassin) bug, was first described by Charles Darwin during his voyage of the Beagle.[2]
  • Carlos Chagas,a Brazilian bacteriologist, was the first to discover the association between the triatomine Riduvid insect and T. cruzi. Carlos Chagas named the pathogen T. cruzi in honor of his mentor, Oswaldo Cruz.[3]
  • Further contributions to the characteristization of T. cruzi were made by microbiological identification of the parasite were made by Stanislaus von Prowazek (microbiological characteristics of the parasite), Gaspara de Oliveria Vianna (intracellular life cycle), Alexandre Joseph Emile Brumpt (mode of vector transmission of the parasite), and Salvador Mazza (blood transfusion transmission and clinical description of the disease).[3]

References

  1. ↑ Aufderheide AC, Salo W, Madden M, Streitz J, Buikstra J, Guhl F; et al. (2004). "A 9,000-year record of Chagas' disease". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 101 (7): 2034–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.0307312101. PMC 357047. PMID 14766963.
  2. ↑ Miles MA (2004). "The discovery of Chagas disease: progress and prejudice". Infect Dis Clin North Am. 18 (2): 247–60, table of contents. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2004.01.005. PMID 15145379.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Steverding D (2014). "The history of Chagas disease". Parasit Vectors. 7: 317. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-7-317. PMC 4105117. PMID 25011546.
  4. ↑ Rodriques Coura J, de Castro SL (2002). "A critical review on Chagas disease chemotherapy". Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 97 (1): 3–24. PMID 11992141.
  5. ↑ Dias J, Schofield C (1999). "The evolution of Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis) control after 90 years since Carlos Chagas discovery". Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 94 Suppl 1: 103–21. PMID 10677697.

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