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| | Image = Epidemic typhus Burundi.jpg| | | | Image = Epidemic typhus Burundi.jpg| |
| | Caption = Rash caused by Epidemic typhus. | | | Caption = Rash caused by Epidemic typhus. |
| | DiseasesDB = 29240
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| | ICD10 = {{ICD10|A|75|1|a|75}}
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| | ICD9 = {{ICD9|080}}-{{ICD9|083}}
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| | ICDO =
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| | OMIM =
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| | MedlinePlus = 001363
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| | eMedicineSubj = med
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| | eMedicineTopic = 2332
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| | MeshID =
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| }} | | }} |
| {{Typhus}} | | {{Typhus}} |
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| '''For patient information click [[Typhus (patient information)|here]]''' | | '''For patient information click [[Typhus (patient information)|here]]''' |
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| {{CMG}} | | {{CMG}} ; {{AE}} {{ADG}} |
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| {{SK}} | | {{SK}} Typhus fever; murine typhus; epidemic typhus; endemic typhus; Brill-Zinsser disease; jail fever |
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| ==[[Typhus overview|Overview]]== | | ==[[Typhus overview|Overview]]== |
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| ==Types of typhus== | | ==[[Typhus historical perspective|Historical Perspective]]== |
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| ==Vaccine==
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| The first major step in the development of the [[vaccine]] was [[Charles Nicolle]]'s 1909 discovery that [[lice]] were the [[Vector (biology)|vectors]] for epidemic typhus. This made it possible to isolate the bacteria causing the disease and develop a vaccine; he was awarded the 1928 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for this work. Nicolle attempted a vaccine but was not successful in making one that worked on a large enough scale.<ref>Gross, Ludwik (1996) [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/93/20/10539.pdf ''How Charles Nicolle of the Pasteur Institute discovered that epidemic typhus is transmitted by lice: reminiscences from my years at the Pasteur Institute in Paris''] Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Vol. 93, pp. 10539-10540.</ref>
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| [[Henrique da Rocha Lima]] in 1916 then proved that the bacteria ''Rickettsia prowazekii'' was the agent responsible for typhus; he named bacteria after H. T. Ricketts and [[Stanislaus von Prowazek]], two zoologists who died investigating a typhus epidemic in a prison camp in 1915. Once these crucial facts were recognized, Rudolf Weigl in 1930 was able to fashion a practical and effective vaccine production method by grinding up the guts of infected lice that had been drinking blood. It was, however, very dangerous to produce, and carried a high likelihood of infection to those who were working on it.
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| A safer mass-production-ready method using egg yolks was developed by [[H. R. Cox|Herald R. Cox]] in 1938.<ref name =Mazal1>[http://www.mazal.org/archive/nmt/01/NMT01-T508.htm ''Nuernberg Military Tribunal, Volume I''] pp. 508-511</ref> This vaccine was used heavily by 1943.
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| ==History==
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| [[Image:CPS141ratpoison.jpg|thumb|left|Civilian Public Service worker distributes rat poison for typhus control in Gulfport, Mississippi, ca. 1945.]]
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| The first description of typhus was probably given in 1083 at a convent near Salerno, Italy.<ref>[http://www.lwow.home.pl/Weigl.html Maintenace of human-fed live lice in the laboratory and production of Weigl's exanthematous typhus vaccine] by Waclaw Szybalski (1999)</ref> In 1546, [[Girolamo Fracastoro]], a Florentine physician, described typhus in his famous treatise on viruses and contagion, ''De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis''.<ref>[[Girolamo Fracastoro|Fracastoro, Girolama]], ''De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis'' (1546).</ref>
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| Before a vaccine was developed in World War II, typhus was a devastating disease for humans and has been responsible for a number of [[epidemics]] throughout history.<ref name= Zinsser>[[Hans Zinsser|Zinsser, Hans]]. ''Rats, Lice and History: A Chronicle of Pestilence and Plagues''. Originally published in Boston in 1935, later edition in 1963. Most recent edition 1996, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, New York. ISBN 1-884822-47-9.</ref> These epidemics tend to follow wars, [[famine]], and other conditions that result in mass causalties.
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| During the second year of the Peloponnesian War (430 BC), the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece was hit by a devastating epidemic, known as the [[Plague of Athens]], which killed, among others, Pericles and his two elder sons. The plague returned twice more, in 429 BC and in the winter of 427/6 BC. Epidemic typhus is one of the strongest candidates for the cause of this disease outbreak, supported by both medical and scholarly opinions.<ref>At a January 1999 medical conference at the [[University of Maryland, College Park|University of Maryland]], Dr. David Durack, consulting professor of medicine at [[Duke University]] notes: ''"Epidemic typhus fever is the best explanation. It hits hardest in times of war and privation, it has about 20 percent mortality, it kills the victim after about seven days, and it sometimes causes a striking complication: gangrene of the tips of the fingers and toes. The Plague of Athens had all these features."'' see also: http://www.umm.edu/news/releases/athens.html</ref><ref>Gomme, A. W., edited by A. Andrewes and K. J. Dover. ''An Historical Commentary on Thucydides, Volume 5. Book VIII'' Oxford University Press, 1981. ISBN 0-19-814198-X.</ref>
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| Typhus also arrived in Europe with soldiers who had been fighting on the isle of Cyprus. The first reliable description of the disease appears during the Spanish siege of Moorish Granada in 1489. These accounts include descriptions of fever and red spots over arms, back and chest, progressing to delirium, gangrenous sores, and the stink of rotting flesh. During the siege, the Spaniards lost 3,000 men to enemy action but an additional 17,000 died of typhus.
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| Typhus was also common in prisons (and in crowded conditions where [[lice]] spreads easily), where it was known as ''Gaol fever'' or ''Jail fever''. Gaol fever often occurs when prisoners are frequently huddled together in dark, filthy rooms. Imprisonment until the next term of court was often equivalent to a death sentence. It was so infectious that prisoners brought before the court sometimes infected the court itself. Following the Assize held at Oxford in 1577, later deemed the Black Assize, over 300 died from Epidemic typhus, including Sir Robert Bell Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer. The outbreak that followed, between 1557 to 1559, killed about 10% of the English population.
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| During the Lent Assize Court held at Taunton (1730) typhus caused the death of the Lord Chief Baron, as well as the High Sheriff, the sergeant, and hundreds of others. During a time when there were 241 capital offenses--more prisoners died from 'gaol fever' than were put to death by all the public executioners in the realm. In 1759 an English authority estimated that each year a fourth of the prisoners had died from Gaol fever.<ref>Ralph D. Smith, Comment, Criminal Law -- Arrest -- The Right to Resist Unlawful Arrest, 7 NAT. RESOURCES J. 119, 122 n.16 (1967) (hereinafter Comment) (citing John Howard, The State of Prisons 6-7 (1929)) (Howard's observations are from 1773 to 1775). Copied from State v. Valentine May 1997 132 Wn.2d 1, 935 P.2d 1294</ref> In London, typhus frequently broke out among the ill-kept prisoners of Newgate Gaol and then moved into the general city population.
| | ==[[Typhus classification|Classification]]== |
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| [[Image:DDT WWII soldier.jpg|thumb|left|A U.S. soldier is demonstrating DDT-hand spraying equipment. DDT was used to control the spread of typhus-carrying lice.]] | | ==[[Typhus pathophysiology|Pathophysiology]]== |
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| Epidemics occurred throughout Europe from the 16th to the 19th centuries, and occurred during the English Civil War, the Thirty Years' War and the Napoleonic Wars. During Napoleon's retreat from Moscow in 1812, more French soldiers died of typhus than were killed by the Russians.
| | ==[[Typhus causes|Causes]]== |
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| A major epidemic occurred in Ireland between 1816-19, and again in the late 1830s, and yet another major typhus epidemic occurred during the Great Irish Famine between 1846 and 1849. The Irish typhus spread to England, where it was sometimes called "Irish fever" and was noted for its virulence. It killed people of all social classes, since lice were endemic and inescapable, but it hit particularly hard in the lower or "unwashed" social strata.
| | ==[[Typhus differential diagnosis|Differentiating Typhus from other Diseases]]== |
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| In America, a typhus epidemic killed the son of [[Franklin Pierce]] in Concord, New Hampshire in 1843 and struck in Philadelphia in 1837. Several epidemics occurred in Baltimore, Maryland, Memphis, Tennessee and Washington DC between 1865 and 1873. Typhus fever was also a significant killer during the US Civil War, although [[typhoid]] fever was the more prevalent cause of US Civil War "camp fever". Typhoid is a completely different disease from typhus.
| | ==[[Typhus epidemiology and demographics|Epidemiology and Demographics]]== |
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| During World War I typhus caused three million deaths in Russia and more in Poland and Romania. De-lousing stations were established for troops on the Western front but the disease ravaged the armies of the Eastern front, with over 150,000 dying in Serbia alone. Fatalities were generally between 10 to 40 percent of those infected, and the disease was a major cause of death for those nursing the sick.
| | ==[[Typhus risk factors|Risk Factors]]== |
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| Some historians assert that the disease may serve as a model for the use of biological weapons while in the field. Between 1918 and 1922 typhus caused at least 3 million deaths out of 20–30 million cases. In Russia after World War I, during a civil war between the White and Red armies, typhus killed three million, largely civilians. Even larger epidemics in the post-war chaos of Europe were only averted by the widespread use of the newly discovered [[DDT]] to kill the lice on millions of refugees and displaced persons.
| | ==[[Typhus natural history, complications and prognosis|Natural History, Complications and Prognosis]]== |
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| During World War II typhus struck the German army as it invaded Russia in 1941.<ref name =Mazal1/> In 1942 and 1943 typhus hit French North Africa, Egypt and Iran particularly hard.<ref>Zarafonetis, Chris J. D. [http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/infectiousdisvolii/chapter7.htm ''Internal Medicine in World War II, Volume II'', Chapter 7] </ref> Typhus epidemics killed inmates in the Nazi Germany concentration camps, infamous pictures of typhus victims' mass graves could be seen in footage shot at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp.<ref name =Mazal1/> Thousands of prisoners held in appalling conditions in Nazi concentration camps such Theresienstadt and Bergen-Belsen also died of typhus during World War II<ref name =Mazal1/>, including Anne Frank and her sister Margot.
| | ==Diagnosis== |
| | [[Typhus diagnostic criteria|Diagnostic Criteria]] | [[Typhus history and symptoms|History and Symptoms]] | [[Typhus physical examination|Physical Examination]] | [[Typhus laboratory findings|Laboratory Findings]] | [[Typhus chest x ray|Chest X Ray]] | [[Typhus other diagnostic studies|Other Diagnostic Studies]] |
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| Following the development of a vaccine during World War II epidemics occur only in Eastern Europe, the Middle East and parts of Africa.
| | ==Treatment== |
| | [[Typhus medical therapy|Medical Therapy]] | [[Typhus primary prevention|Primary Prevention]] | [[Typhus secondary prevention|Secondary Prevention]] | [[Typhus cost-effectiveness of therapy|Cost-Effectiveness of Therapy]] | [[Typhus future or investigational therapies|Future or Investigational Therapies]] |
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| ==References== | | ==Case Studies== |
| {{Reflist|2}}
| | [[Typhus case study one|Case #1]] |
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| {{Bacterial diseases}} | | {{Bacterial diseases}} |
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