Parkinson's disease causes: Difference between revisions

Jump to navigation Jump to search
VisualWikitext
No edit summary
 
(9 intermediate revisions by 3 users not shown)
Line 2: Line 2:
{{Parkinson's disease}}
{{Parkinson's disease}}


{{CMG}}
 
{{CMG}} {{AE}} {{Fs}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
The most common cause of Parkinson disease are sporadic and [[idiopathic]], there are some underlying cause for this [[disease]] including [[genetics]], [[drugs]], [[oxidative stress]], [[iron]] [[metabolism]], [[Immunity (medical)|immunologic]] and [[Inflammation|inflammatory]] [[Mechanisms of action|mechanisms]] and [[protein]] [[Folding (chemistry)|misfolding]].


==Causes==
==Causes==


Most people with Parkinson's disease are described as having [[idiopathic]] Parkinson's disease (having no specific cause). There are far less common causes of Parkinson's disease including
=== Common causes ===
* Genetic
The most common causes of Parkinson disease include:
* Toxins - MPTP, paraquat, rotenone
* Genetics
* Head trauma
** There are some evidence showing that there is an association between [[Parkinson's disease|PD]] and [[genetic]].
* Drug-induced - Antipsychotics, Dopamine agonists
** This role is higher when Parkinson disease occurs in the individual younger than 50 years old.<ref name="pmid23389780">{{cite journal |vauthors=Singleton AB, Farrer MJ, Bonifati V |title=The genetics of Parkinson's disease: progress and therapeutic implications |journal=Mov. Disord. |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=14–23 |date=January 2013 |pmid=23389780 |pmc=3578399 |doi=10.1002/mds.25249 |url=}}</ref>
** These studies also demonstrate that if a person has a first degree with [[Parkinson's disease|PD]], the risk of developing [[Parkinson's disease|PD]] is 2 to 3 times higher than normal population. Conversely, in 25 to 50 % of PD patients we can find at least one first degree having [[Parkinson's disease|PD]].<ref name="pmid8710070">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marder K, Tang MX, Mejia H, Alfaro B, Côté L, Louis E, Groves J, Mayeux R |title=Risk of Parkinson's disease among first-degree relatives: A community-based study |journal=Neurology |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=155–60 |date=July 1996 |pmid=8710070 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** Some of specific genes involving in [[Parkinson's disease|PD]] are:
***[[Glucocerebrosidase|Glucocerebrosidase gene]] <ref name="pmid19846850">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sidransky E, Nalls MA, Aasly JO, Aharon-Peretz J, Annesi G, Barbosa ER, Bar-Shira A, Berg D, Bras J, Brice A, Chen CM, Clark LN, Condroyer C, De Marco EV, Dürr A, Eblan MJ, Fahn S, Farrer MJ, Fung HC, Gan-Or Z, Gasser T, Gershoni-Baruch R, Giladi N, Griffith A, Gurevich T, Januario C, Kropp P, Lang AE, Lee-Chen GJ, Lesage S, Marder K, Mata IF, Mirelman A, Mitsui J, Mizuta I, Nicoletti G, Oliveira C, Ottman R, Orr-Urtreger A, Pereira LV, Quattrone A, Rogaeva E, Rolfs A, Rosenbaum H, Rozenberg R, Samii A, Samaddar T, Schulte C, Sharma M, Singleton A, Spitz M, Tan EK, Tayebi N, Toda T, Troiano AR, Tsuji S, Wittstock M, Wolfsberg TG, Wu YR, Zabetian CP, Zhao Y, Ziegler SG |title=Multicenter analysis of glucocerebrosidase mutations in Parkinson's disease |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=361 |issue=17 |pages=1651–61 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19846850 |pmc=2856322 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa0901281 |url=}}</ref>
***[[SNCA]]-associated PD <ref name="pmid17761553">{{cite journal |vauthors=Klein C, Schlossmacher MG |title=Parkinson disease, 10 years after its genetic revolution: multiple clues to a complex disorder |journal=Neurology |volume=69 |issue=22 |pages=2093–104 |date=November 2007 |pmid=17761553 |doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000271880.27321.a7 |url=}}</ref>
***[[LRRK2]]-associated PD <ref name="pmid11891824">{{cite journal |vauthors=Funayama M, Hasegawa K, Kowa H, Saito M, Tsuji S, Obata F |title=A new locus for Parkinson's disease (PARK8) maps to chromosome 12p11.2-q13.1 |journal=Ann. Neurol. |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=296–301 |date=March 2002 |pmid=11891824 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
***[[Parkin]]-associated PD <ref name="pmid10824074">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lücking CB, Dürr A, Bonifati V, Vaughan J, De Michele G, Gasser T, Harhangi BS, Meco G, Denèfle P, Wood NW, Agid Y, Brice A |title=Association between early-onset Parkinson's disease and mutations in the parkin gene |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=342 |issue=21 |pages=1560–7 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10824074 |doi=10.1056/NEJM200005253422103 |url=}}</ref>
***[[PINK1]]-associated PD <ref name="pmid15087508">{{cite journal |vauthors=Valente EM, Abou-Sleiman PM, Caputo V, Muqit MM, Harvey K, Gispert S, Ali Z, Del Turco D, Bentivoglio AR, Healy DG, Albanese A, Nussbaum R, González-Maldonado R, Deller T, Salvi S, Cortelli P, Gilks WP, Latchman DS, Harvey RJ, Dallapiccola B, Auburger G, Wood NW |title=Hereditary early-onset Parkinson's disease caused by mutations in PINK1 |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5674 |pages=1158–60 |date=May 2004 |pmid=15087508 |doi=10.1126/science.1096284 |url=}}</ref>
***[[DJ-1]]-associated PD <ref name="pmid12446870">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bonifati V, Rizzu P, van Baren MJ, Schaap O, Breedveld GJ, Krieger E, Dekker MC, Squitieri F, Ibanez P, Joosse M, van Dongen JW, Vanacore N, van Swieten JC, Brice A, Meco G, van Duijn CM, Oostra BA, Heutink P |title=Mutations in the DJ-1 gene associated with autosomal recessive early-onset parkinsonism |journal=Science |volume=299 |issue=5604 |pages=256–9 |date=January 2003 |pmid=12446870 |doi=10.1126/science.1077209 |url=}}</ref>
 
* Drugs
**[[Antiemetic]] and [[Antipsychotics|antipsychotic]] drugs are mostly the cause. They can cause [[akathisia]] and [[orofacial dyskinesia]] which in these cases we can differentiate them from idiopathic [[Parkinson's disease|PD]] but sometimes they are similar to [[Parkinson's disease|PD]] and have symmetrical resting [[tremor]].<ref name="pmid16361025">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tolosa E, Wenning G, Poewe W |title=The diagnosis of Parkinson's disease |journal=Lancet Neurol |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=75–86 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16361025 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70285-4 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17044803">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mena MA, de Yébenes JG |title=Drug-induced parkinsonism |journal=Expert Opin Drug Saf |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=759–71 |date=November 2006 |pmid=17044803 |doi=10.1517/14740338.5.6.759 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27779780">{{cite journal |vauthors=Savica R, Grossardt BR, Bower JH, Ahlskog JE, Mielke MM, Rocca WA |title=Incidence and time trends of drug-induced parkinsonism: A 30-year population-based study |journal=Mov. Disord. |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=227–234 |date=February 2017 |pmid=27779780 |pmc=5318251 |doi=10.1002/mds.26839 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2900293">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hardie RJ, Lees AJ |title=Neuroleptic-induced Parkinson's syndrome: clinical features and results of treatment with levodopa |journal=J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=850–4 |date=June 1988 |pmid=2900293 |pmc=1033159 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2892586">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jankovic J, Casabona J |title=Coexistent tardive dyskinesia and parkinsonism |journal=Clin Neuropharmacol |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=511–21 |date=December 1987 |pmid=2892586 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** The [[drug]] 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, an [[Analog (chemistry)|analog]] of mepridine is found to be associated with [[Parkinson's disease|PD]]. The [[oxidation]] of this drug produces 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridium which inhibits complex one of mitochondria and result in [[cell]] damage. Studies showed that the activity of this complex is decreased in [[Parkinson's disease|PD]] patients.<ref name="pmid15377875">{{cite journal |vauthors=Przedborski S, Tieu K, Perier C, Vila M |title=MPTP as a mitochondrial neurotoxic model of Parkinson's disease |journal=J. Bioenerg. Biomembr. |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=375–9 |date=August 2004 |pmid=15377875 |doi=10.1023/B:JOBB.0000041771.66775.d5 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22446186">{{cite journal |vauthors=Selvaraj S, Sun Y, Watt JA, Wang S, Lei S, Birnbaumer L, Singh BB |title=Neurotoxin-induced ER stress in mouse dopaminergic neurons involves downregulation of TRPC1 and inhibition of AKT/mTOR signaling |journal=J. Clin. Invest. |volume=122 |issue=4 |pages=1354–67 |date=April 2012 |pmid=22446186 |pmc=3314472 |doi=10.1172/JCI61332 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2566813">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schapira AH, Cooper JM, Dexter D, Jenner P, Clark JB, Marsden CD |title=Mitochondrial complex I deficiency in Parkinson's disease |journal=Lancet |volume=1 |issue=8649 |pages=1269 |date=June 1989 |pmid=2566813 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 
* Oxidative stress
**[[Reactive oxygen species]] including [[hydrogen peroxide]], superoxide anions and hydroxyradicals are [[toxic]] to [[neurons]] and cause [[neuronal]] damage.
** They interact with [[membrane lipids]] and cause [[lipid peroxidation]] which can be seen in [[substantia nigra]] of [[Parkinson's disease|PD]] patients.<ref name="pmid15155938">{{cite journal |vauthors=Greenamyre JT, Hastings TG |title=Biomedicine. Parkinson's--divergent causes, convergent mechanisms |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5674 |pages=1120–2 |date=May 2004 |pmid=15155938 |doi=10.1126/science.1098966 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14645467">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sherer TB, Betarbet R, Testa CM, Seo BB, Richardson JR, Kim JH, Miller GW, Yagi T, Matsuno-Yagi A, Greenamyre JT |title=Mechanism of toxicity in rotenone models of Parkinson's disease |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=23 |issue=34 |pages=10756–64 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14645467 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
** They can also cause protein misfolding by attacking disulfide isomerase through [[nitric oxide]]. Disulfide isomerase is a [[chaperone]] preventing the aggregation of [[proteins]].<ref name="pmid16724068">{{cite journal |vauthors=Uehara T, Nakamura T, Yao D, Shi ZQ, Gu Z, Ma Y, Masliah E, Nomura Y, Lipton SA |title=S-nitrosylated protein-disulphide isomerase links protein misfolding to neurodegeneration |journal=Nature |volume=441 |issue=7092 |pages=513–7 |date=May 2006 |pmid=16724068 |doi=10.1038/nature04782 |url=}}</ref>
 
* Iron metabolism
** Studies showed that impaired [[iron metabolism]] leads to increase amount of [[iron]] in [[substantia nigra]] of [[Parkinson's disease|PD]] patients.
** One of the underlying [[etiology]] of [[iron]] accommodation in [[Neuron|neuronal cells]] is the absence of [[tau protein]].<ref name="pmid17515544">{{cite journal |vauthors=Oakley AE, Collingwood JF, Dobson J, Love G, Perrott HR, Edwardson JA, Elstner M, Morris CM |title=Individual dopaminergic neurons show raised iron levels in Parkinson disease |journal=Neurology |volume=68 |issue=21 |pages=1820–5 |date=May 2007 |pmid=17515544 |doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000262033.01945.9a |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22266337">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dusek P, Jankovic J, Le W |title=Iron dysregulation in movement disorders |journal=Neurobiol. Dis. |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |date=April 2012 |pmid=22266337 |doi=10.1016/j.nbd.2011.12.054 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22286308">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lei P, Ayton S, Finkelstein DI, Spoerri L, Ciccotosto GD, Wright DK, Wong BX, Adlard PA, Cherny RA, Lam LQ, Roberts BR, Volitakis I, Egan GF, McLean CA, Cappai R, Duce JA, Bush AI |title=Tau deficiency induces parkinsonism with dementia by impairing APP-mediated iron export |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=291–5 |date=January 2012 |pmid=22286308 |doi=10.1038/nm.2613 |url=}}</ref>
 
* Immunologic and inflammatory mechanisms
** There are some studies supporting the idea of [[Immunology|immunologic]] mechanisms causing [[Parkinson's disease|PD]].<ref name="pmid19296921">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hirsch EC, Hunot S |title=Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease: a target for neuroprotection? |journal=Lancet Neurol |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=382–97 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19296921 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70062-6 |url=}}</ref>
** In [[Parkinson's disease|PD]] patients there is elevated amounts of [[cyclooxygenase-2]] which is the rate limiting enzyme in [[Prostaglandin E|prostaglandin E2]] synthesis.<ref name="pmid12702778">{{cite journal |vauthors=Teismann P, Tieu K, Choi DK, Wu DC, Naini A, Hunot S, Vila M, Jackson-Lewis V, Przedborski S |title=Cyclooxygenase-2 is instrumental in Parkinson's disease neurodegeneration |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=100 |issue=9 |pages=5473–8 |date=April 2003 |pmid=12702778 |pmc=154369 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0837397100 |url=}}</ref>
** [[Neuron|Neuronal cell]] death can also occur due to infiltration of [[CD4+ T cells]].<ref name="pmid19104149">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brochard V, Combadière B, Prigent A, Laouar Y, Perrin A, Beray-Berthat V, Bonduelle O, Alvarez-Fischer D, Callebert J, Launay JM, Duyckaerts C, Flavell RA, Hirsch EC, Hunot S |title=Infiltration of CD4+ lymphocytes into the brain contributes to neurodegeneration in a mouse model of Parkinson disease |journal=J. Clin. Invest. |volume=119 |issue=1 |pages=182–92 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19104149 |pmc=2613467 |doi=10.1172/JCI36470 |url=}}</ref>
 
* Protein misfolding
** One of the main underlying cause of [[Parkinson's disease|PD]] is [[mutation]] in the gene of [[alpha-synuclein]] protein which is abundant in the [[CNS]].
** Its function is thought to be involved in [[synaptic]] function and [[plasticity]]. This [[Mutation|mutations]] lead to unfold [[alpha-synuclein]] and aggregation of insoluble [[protein]] and [[neuronal]] damage.<ref name="pmid12951565">{{cite journal |vauthors=Maries E, Dass B, Collier TJ, Kordower JH, Steece-Collier K |title=The role of alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease: insights from animal models |journal=Nat. Rev. Neurosci. |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=727–38 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12951565 |doi=10.1038/nrn1199 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26790375">{{cite journal |vauthors=Calo L, Wegrzynowicz M, Santivañez-Perez J, Grazia Spillantini M |title=Synaptic failure and α-synuclein |journal=Mov. Disord. |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=169–77 |date=February 2016 |pmid=26790375 |doi=10.1002/mds.26479 |url=}}</ref>
** [[Lewy body|Lewy bodies]] which are characteristic of [[Parkinson's disease|PD]] are mostly build from [[alpha-synuclein]] [[protein]].<ref name="pmid9278044">{{cite journal |vauthors=Spillantini MG, Schmidt ML, Lee VM, Trojanowski JQ, Jakes R, Goedert M |title=Alpha-synuclein in Lewy bodies |journal=Nature |volume=388 |issue=6645 |pages=839–40 |date=August 1997 |pmid=9278044 |doi=10.1038/42166 |url=}}</ref>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
[[Category:Needs content]]


{{WH}}
{{WH}}
{{WS}}
{{WS}}

Latest revision as of 14:09, 6 August 2019

Parkinson's disease Microchapters

Home

Patient Information

Overview

Historical Perspective

Pathophysiology

Causes

Differentiating Parkinson's disease from other Diseases

Epidemiology and Demographics

Risk Factors

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Parkinson's Disease

Diagnosis

History and Symptoms

Physical Examination

Laboratory Findings

Electrocardiogram

X-ray

Echocardiography and Ultrasound

CT

MRI

Other Imaging Findings

Other Diagnostic Studies

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Surgery

Primary Prevention

Secondary Prevention

Cost-Effectiveness of Therapy

Future or Investigational Therapies

Case Studies

Case #1

Parkinson's disease causes On the Web

Most recent articles

Most cited articles

Review articles

CME Programs

Powerpoint slides

Images

American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Parkinson's disease causes

All Images
X-rays
Echo & Ultrasound
CT Images
MRI

Ongoing Trials at Clinical Trials.gov

US National Guidelines Clearinghouse

NICE Guidance

FDA on Parkinson's disease causes

CDC on Parkinson's disease causes

Parkinson's disease causes in the news

Blogs on Parkinson's disease causes

Directions to Hospitals Treating Parkinson's disease

Risk calculators and risk factors for Parkinson's disease causes


Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Fahimeh Shojaei, M.D.

Overview

The most common cause of Parkinson disease are sporadic and idiopathic, there are some underlying cause for this disease including genetics, drugs, oxidative stress, iron metabolism, immunologic and inflammatory mechanisms and protein misfolding.

Causes

Common causes

The most common causes of Parkinson disease include:

  • Genetics
    • There are some evidence showing that there is an association between PD and genetic.
    • This role is higher when Parkinson disease occurs in the individual younger than 50 years old.[1]
    • These studies also demonstrate that if a person has a first degree with PD, the risk of developing PD is 2 to 3 times higher than normal population. Conversely, in 25 to 50 % of PD patients we can find at least one first degree having PD.[2]
    • Some of specific genes involving in PD are:
  • Drugs
    • Antiemetic and antipsychotic drugs are mostly the cause. They can cause akathisia and orofacial dyskinesia which in these cases we can differentiate them from idiopathic PD but sometimes they are similar to PD and have symmetrical resting tremor.[9][10][11][12][13]
    • The drug 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, an analog of mepridine is found to be associated with PD. The oxidation of this drug produces 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridium which inhibits complex one of mitochondria and result in cell damage. Studies showed that the activity of this complex is decreased in PD patients.[14][15][16]

References

  1. ↑ Singleton AB, Farrer MJ, Bonifati V (January 2013). "The genetics of Parkinson's disease: progress and therapeutic implications". Mov. Disord. 28 (1): 14–23. doi:10.1002/mds.25249. PMC 3578399. PMID 23389780.
  2. ↑ Marder K, Tang MX, Mejia H, Alfaro B, Côté L, Louis E, Groves J, Mayeux R (July 1996). "Risk of Parkinson's disease among first-degree relatives: A community-based study". Neurology. 47 (1): 155–60. PMID 8710070.
  3. ↑ Sidransky E, Nalls MA, Aasly JO, Aharon-Peretz J, Annesi G, Barbosa ER, Bar-Shira A, Berg D, Bras J, Brice A, Chen CM, Clark LN, Condroyer C, De Marco EV, Dürr A, Eblan MJ, Fahn S, Farrer MJ, Fung HC, Gan-Or Z, Gasser T, Gershoni-Baruch R, Giladi N, Griffith A, Gurevich T, Januario C, Kropp P, Lang AE, Lee-Chen GJ, Lesage S, Marder K, Mata IF, Mirelman A, Mitsui J, Mizuta I, Nicoletti G, Oliveira C, Ottman R, Orr-Urtreger A, Pereira LV, Quattrone A, Rogaeva E, Rolfs A, Rosenbaum H, Rozenberg R, Samii A, Samaddar T, Schulte C, Sharma M, Singleton A, Spitz M, Tan EK, Tayebi N, Toda T, Troiano AR, Tsuji S, Wittstock M, Wolfsberg TG, Wu YR, Zabetian CP, Zhao Y, Ziegler SG (October 2009). "Multicenter analysis of glucocerebrosidase mutations in Parkinson's disease". N. Engl. J. Med. 361 (17): 1651–61. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0901281. PMC 2856322. PMID 19846850.
  4. ↑ Klein C, Schlossmacher MG (November 2007). "Parkinson disease, 10 years after its genetic revolution: multiple clues to a complex disorder". Neurology. 69 (22): 2093–104. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000271880.27321.a7. PMID 17761553.
  5. ↑ Funayama M, Hasegawa K, Kowa H, Saito M, Tsuji S, Obata F (March 2002). "A new locus for Parkinson's disease (PARK8) maps to chromosome 12p11.2-q13.1". Ann. Neurol. 51 (3): 296–301. PMID 11891824.
  6. ↑ Lücking CB, Dürr A, Bonifati V, Vaughan J, De Michele G, Gasser T, Harhangi BS, Meco G, Denèfle P, Wood NW, Agid Y, Brice A (May 2000). "Association between early-onset Parkinson's disease and mutations in the parkin gene". N. Engl. J. Med. 342 (21): 1560–7. doi:10.1056/NEJM200005253422103. PMID 10824074.
  7. ↑ Valente EM, Abou-Sleiman PM, Caputo V, Muqit MM, Harvey K, Gispert S, Ali Z, Del Turco D, Bentivoglio AR, Healy DG, Albanese A, Nussbaum R, González-Maldonado R, Deller T, Salvi S, Cortelli P, Gilks WP, Latchman DS, Harvey RJ, Dallapiccola B, Auburger G, Wood NW (May 2004). "Hereditary early-onset Parkinson's disease caused by mutations in PINK1". Science. 304 (5674): 1158–60. doi:10.1126/science.1096284. PMID 15087508.
  8. ↑ Bonifati V, Rizzu P, van Baren MJ, Schaap O, Breedveld GJ, Krieger E, Dekker MC, Squitieri F, Ibanez P, Joosse M, van Dongen JW, Vanacore N, van Swieten JC, Brice A, Meco G, van Duijn CM, Oostra BA, Heutink P (January 2003). "Mutations in the DJ-1 gene associated with autosomal recessive early-onset parkinsonism". Science. 299 (5604): 256–9. doi:10.1126/science.1077209. PMID 12446870.
  9. ↑ Tolosa E, Wenning G, Poewe W (January 2006). "The diagnosis of Parkinson's disease". Lancet Neurol. 5 (1): 75–86. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70285-4. PMID 16361025.
  10. ↑ Mena MA, de Yébenes JG (November 2006). "Drug-induced parkinsonism". Expert Opin Drug Saf. 5 (6): 759–71. doi:10.1517/14740338.5.6.759. PMID 17044803.
  11. ↑ Savica R, Grossardt BR, Bower JH, Ahlskog JE, Mielke MM, Rocca WA (February 2017). "Incidence and time trends of drug-induced parkinsonism: A 30-year population-based study". Mov. Disord. 32 (2): 227–234. doi:10.1002/mds.26839. PMC 5318251. PMID 27779780.
  12. ↑ Hardie RJ, Lees AJ (June 1988). "Neuroleptic-induced Parkinson's syndrome: clinical features and results of treatment with levodopa". J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 51 (6): 850–4. PMC 1033159. PMID 2900293.
  13. ↑ Jankovic J, Casabona J (December 1987). "Coexistent tardive dyskinesia and parkinsonism". Clin Neuropharmacol. 10 (6): 511–21. PMID 2892586.
  14. ↑ Przedborski S, Tieu K, Perier C, Vila M (August 2004). "MPTP as a mitochondrial neurotoxic model of Parkinson's disease". J. Bioenerg. Biomembr. 36 (4): 375–9. doi:10.1023/B:JOBB.0000041771.66775.d5. PMID 15377875.
  15. ↑ Selvaraj S, Sun Y, Watt JA, Wang S, Lei S, Birnbaumer L, Singh BB (April 2012). "Neurotoxin-induced ER stress in mouse dopaminergic neurons involves downregulation of TRPC1 and inhibition of AKT/mTOR signaling". J. Clin. Invest. 122 (4): 1354–67. doi:10.1172/JCI61332. PMC 3314472. PMID 22446186.
  16. ↑ Schapira AH, Cooper JM, Dexter D, Jenner P, Clark JB, Marsden CD (June 1989). "Mitochondrial complex I deficiency in Parkinson's disease". Lancet. 1 (8649): 1269. PMID 2566813.
  17. ↑ Greenamyre JT, Hastings TG (May 2004). "Biomedicine. Parkinson's--divergent causes, convergent mechanisms". Science. 304 (5674): 1120–2. doi:10.1126/science.1098966. PMID 15155938.
  18. ↑ Sherer TB, Betarbet R, Testa CM, Seo BB, Richardson JR, Kim JH, Miller GW, Yagi T, Matsuno-Yagi A, Greenamyre JT (November 2003). "Mechanism of toxicity in rotenone models of Parkinson's disease". J. Neurosci. 23 (34): 10756–64. PMID 14645467.
  19. ↑ Uehara T, Nakamura T, Yao D, Shi ZQ, Gu Z, Ma Y, Masliah E, Nomura Y, Lipton SA (May 2006). "S-nitrosylated protein-disulphide isomerase links protein misfolding to neurodegeneration". Nature. 441 (7092): 513–7. doi:10.1038/nature04782. PMID 16724068.
  20. ↑ Oakley AE, Collingwood JF, Dobson J, Love G, Perrott HR, Edwardson JA, Elstner M, Morris CM (May 2007). "Individual dopaminergic neurons show raised iron levels in Parkinson disease". Neurology. 68 (21): 1820–5. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000262033.01945.9a. PMID 17515544.
  21. ↑ Dusek P, Jankovic J, Le W (April 2012). "Iron dysregulation in movement disorders". Neurobiol. Dis. 46 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2011.12.054. PMID 22266337.
  22. ↑ Lei P, Ayton S, Finkelstein DI, Spoerri L, Ciccotosto GD, Wright DK, Wong BX, Adlard PA, Cherny RA, Lam LQ, Roberts BR, Volitakis I, Egan GF, McLean CA, Cappai R, Duce JA, Bush AI (January 2012). "Tau deficiency induces parkinsonism with dementia by impairing APP-mediated iron export". Nat. Med. 18 (2): 291–5. doi:10.1038/nm.2613. PMID 22286308.
  23. ↑ Hirsch EC, Hunot S (April 2009). "Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease: a target for neuroprotection?". Lancet Neurol. 8 (4): 382–97. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70062-6. PMID 19296921.
  24. ↑ Teismann P, Tieu K, Choi DK, Wu DC, Naini A, Hunot S, Vila M, Jackson-Lewis V, Przedborski S (April 2003). "Cyclooxygenase-2 is instrumental in Parkinson's disease neurodegeneration". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100 (9): 5473–8. doi:10.1073/pnas.0837397100. PMC 154369. PMID 12702778.
  25. ↑ Brochard V, Combadière B, Prigent A, Laouar Y, Perrin A, Beray-Berthat V, Bonduelle O, Alvarez-Fischer D, Callebert J, Launay JM, Duyckaerts C, Flavell RA, Hirsch EC, Hunot S (January 2009). "Infiltration of CD4+ lymphocytes into the brain contributes to neurodegeneration in a mouse model of Parkinson disease". J. Clin. Invest. 119 (1): 182–92. doi:10.1172/JCI36470. PMC 2613467. PMID 19104149.
  26. ↑ Maries E, Dass B, Collier TJ, Kordower JH, Steece-Collier K (September 2003). "The role of alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease: insights from animal models". Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 4 (9): 727–38. doi:10.1038/nrn1199. PMID 12951565.
  27. ↑ Calo L, Wegrzynowicz M, Santivañez-Perez J, Grazia Spillantini M (February 2016). "Synaptic failure and α-synuclein". Mov. Disord. 31 (2): 169–77. doi:10.1002/mds.26479. PMID 26790375.
  28. ↑ Spillantini MG, Schmidt ML, Lee VM, Trojanowski JQ, Jakes R, Goedert M (August 1997). "Alpha-synuclein in Lewy bodies". Nature. 388 (6645): 839–40. doi:10.1038/42166. PMID 9278044.

Template:WH Template:WS

Retrieved from "https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php?title=Parkinson%27s_disease_causes&oldid=1578479"