Meningitis causes: Difference between revisions

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__NOTOC__
__NOTOC__
{{Meningitis}}
{{Meningitis}}
{{CMG}}; '''Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief:'''  {{CZ}}
{{CMG}}; '''Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief:'''  {{CZ}}; {{M.P}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
Most cases of meningitis are caused by [[microorganisms]], such as [[viruses]], [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], or [[parasite]]s, that spread into the blood and into the [[cerebrospinal fluid]] (CSF).<ref name=Sherris>{{cite book | author = Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors) | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | pages = 876&ndash;9 |edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn = 0838585299 }}</ref> Non-infectious causes include [[cancer]]s, [[systemic lupus erythematosus]] and certain [[drugs]]. The most common cause of meningitis is viral, and often runs its course within a few days. Bacterial meningitis is the second most frequent type and can be serious and life-threatening. Numerous microorganisms may cause bacterial meningitis, but ''[[Neisseria meningitidis]]'' ("meningococcus") and ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'' ("pneumococcus") are the most common pathogens in patients without immune deficiency, with meningococcal disease being more common in children. ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' may complicate neurosurgical operations, and ''[[Listeria monocytogenes]]'' is associated with poor nutritional state and alcoholicism. ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]'' (type B) incidence has been much reduced by immunization in many countries. ''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' (the causative agent of [[tuberculosis]]) rarely causes meningitis in Western countries but is common and feared in countries where tuberculosis is endemic.
Most cases of meningitis are caused by [[microorganisms]], such as [[viruses]], [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], or [[parasite]], that spread through blood and into the [[cerebrospinal fluid]] (CSF).<ref name=Sherris>{{cite book | author = Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors) | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | pages = 876&ndash;9 |edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn = 0838585299 }}</ref>   Non-infectious causes include [[cancer]], [[systemic lupus erythematosus]] and certain [[drugs]].   The most common cause of meningitis is viral, and often runs its course within a few days. Bacterial meningitis is the second most frequent type and can be serious and life-threatening. Numerous microorganisms may cause bacterial meningitis, but [[Neisseria meningitidis]] and [[Streptococcus pneumoniae]] are the most common pathogens in patients without immune deficiency, with meningococcal disease being more common in children. [[Staphylococcus aureus]] may complicate neurosurgical operations, and [[Listeria monocytogenes]] is associated with poor nutritional state and alcoholicism. [[Haemophilus influenzae]] (type B) incidence has been much reduced by immunization in many countries. [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]] (the causative agent of [[tuberculosis]]) rarely causes meningitis in Western countries but is common and feared in countries where tuberculosis is endemic.


== Causes ==
== Causes ==
===Life Threatening Causes===
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.
*[[Bacterial meningitis]]
*[[Head injury]]
*[[HIV]]
*[[vaccination|Post-vaccination]]
*[[Skull fracture]]
=== Common Causes ===
=== Common Causes ===
* [[Escherichia coli]]
* [[Escherichia coli]]
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
| '''Dermatologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Allopurinol]], [[amoxicillin]], [[antiepileptic drugs]], [[azathioprine]], [[cetuximab]], [[ibuprofen]], [[intravenous immunoglobulin]], [[isoniazid]], [[lamotrigine]], [[methotrexate]], [[NSAIDs]], [[Oxaprozin]], [[Pergolide]], [[phenazopyridine]], [[rofecoxib]], [[Sulfasalazine]], [[trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole]], [[Ziconotide]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Sinusitis]] , [[Middle ear]] infection  , [[Cholesteatoma]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Cholesteatoma]], [[otitis media]], [[sinusitis]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Whipple's Disease]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Whipple's disease]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Common Variable Immunodeficiency]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Common variable immunodeficiency]], [[X-linked agammaglobulinemia]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
| '''Hematologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Kikuchi disease]], [[X-linked agammaglobulinemia]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Brain tumor surgery|Transsphenoidal surgery]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Yersinia pestis]] , [[Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus ]] , [[Varicella zoster virus]] , [[Typhoid fever ]] , [[Trypanosomiasis ]] , [[Trichinosis]] , [[Treponema pallidum]] , [[Toxoplasma gondii]] , Systemic [[candidiasis]] , [[Streptococcus pneumoniae]] , Streptococcal Group B  , [[Staphylococcus aureus]] , St. Louis encephalitis virus , [[Sporothrix schenckii]] , Spirillum minor (rat bite fever), [[Serratia ]] , Secondary [[syphilis]] , [[Schistosomiasis]] , [[Salmonella]] , [[Rubella]] , [[Rotavirus]] , [[Rickettsia]] , [[Rat-bite fever ]] , [[Rabies]] , [[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]] , [[Poliovirus]] , [[Pasteurella multocida ]] , Parameningeal bacterial infection [[epidural abscess]], subdural abscess , [[Parainfluenza]] , Nocardia  , [[Neisseria meningiditis]] , [[Mycoplasma pneumoniae]] , [[Mycoplasma hominis]] , [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]] , [[Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare]] , [[Mumps]] , Mountain tick fever  , [[Measles]] , [[Malaria]], [[Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus]] , [[Lyme disease ]] , [[Listeria monocytogenes]] , [[Leptospira]] , [[Klebsiella]] , [[Influenza]] A and B , [[HIV]] , [[Histoplasma capsulatum]] , [[Herpes virus]] 6 , [[Herpes simplex]] type I , [[Herpes simplex]] type 2 , Hand, Foot, & Mouth Disease  , [[Haemophilus influenzae]] , Group B [[Streptococcal Infections ]] , Group A [[Streptococcal Infections ]] , [[Escherichia coli]] , [[Epstein Barr virus]] , [[Enteroviruses ]] , Encephalomyocarditis virus , [[Ehrlichia ]] , [[ECHO viruses]] , Eastern encephalitis]] virus  , [[Cytomegalovirus]] , [[Cryptococcus neoformans]] , [[Coxsackie viruses]] types A and B , Congenital [[herpes simplex]] , Colorado tick fever  , [[Coccidioides immitis]] , [[Chlamydia ]] , [[Chicken pox]] , [[Chagas disease]] , [[Candida ]] , [[Campylobacter ]] , [[California encephalitis virus ]] , [[Burkholderia pseudomallei ]] , [[Brucella ]] , Borrelia recurrentis (relapsing fever) , [[Borrelia burgdorferi]] (Lyme disease), [[Blastomyces dermatitidis]] , [[Bartonellosis ]] , [[Bacteroides]] , [[Bacteremia ]] , [[Aspergillus ]] , [[Arboviruses]] , [[Anthrax ]] , Angiostrongylus cantonensis , [[AIDS]]-Related Opportunistic Infections - cryptococcal meningitis , [[Adenovirus]] , [[Actinomycosis]] , [[Actinomyces ]] , [[Acanthamoeba]] , [[Abscess]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Acanthamoeba]], [[Actinomyces]], [[Acinetobacter]], [[adenovirus]], [[Angiostrongylus cantonensis]], [[anthrax]], [[arboviruses]], [[Aspergillus]], [[bacteremia]], [[Bacteroides]], [[Bartonellosis]], [[Blastomyces dermatitidis]], [[Borrelia burgdorferi]], [[Brucella]], [[Burkholderia pseudomallei]], [[California encephalitis virus]], [[campylobacter]], [[candida]], [[Chagas disease]], [[chicken pox]], [[Chlamydia]], [[Citrobacter|Citrobacter koseri]], [[staphylococci|coagulase-negative staphylococci]], [[Coccidioides immitis]], [[Colorado tick fever]], [[coxsackie A virus]], [[coxsackie B virus]], [[Cryptococcus|Cryptococcus neoforman]], [[cytomegalovirus]], [[eastern equine encephalitis virus]], [[echovirus]], [[Ehrlichiosis]], [[enteroviruses]], [[epidural abscess]], [[Epstein Barr virus]], [[Escherichia coli]], [[flavivirus]], [[gram-negative bacilli]], [[Haemophilus influenzae]], [[herpes simplex|herpes simplex type II]], [[herpes simplex|herpes simplex type I]], [[Histoplasma capsulatum]], [[human immunodeficiency virus]], [[influenza virus]], [[Klebsiella]], [[Leptospira]], [[Listeria monocytogenes]], [[Lyme disease]], [[lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus]], [[malaria]], [[measles]], [[mumps virus]], [[Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare]], [[Mycoplasma hominis]], [[Mycoplasma pneumoniae]], [[Naegleria fowleri]], [[neisseria meningitidis]], [[Nocardia]], [[Non-Group B streptococci]], [[otitis media]], [[parainfluenza]], [[Pasteurella multocida]], [[Pasteurella|Pasteurella stomatis]], [[poliovirus]], [[encephalitis|Powassan encephalitis]], [[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]], [[rabies virus]], [[Rat-bite fever]], [[relapsing fever]], [[Rickettsia]], [[rocky mountain spotted fever]], [[roseola]], [[rotavirus]], [[rubella]], [[Salmonella]], [[Schistosomiasis]], [[Serratia]], [[Serratia marcescens]], [[herpes virus|simian herpes B virus]], [[sinusitis]], [[Sporothrix schenckii]], [[St. Louis encephalitis|St. Louis encephalitis virus]], [[Staphylococcus aureus]], [[Streptococcus agalactiae]], [[Streptococcus pneumoniae]], [[Streptococcus suis]], [[subdural abscess]], [[syphilis]], [[Toxoplasma gondii]], [[Treponema pallidum]], [[Trichinosis]], [[Trypanosomiasis]], [[tuberculous meningitis]], [[typhoid fever]], [[varicella zoster virus]], [[Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus]], [[west nile virus]], [[western equine encephalitis virus]], [[Yersinia pestis]]
 
 
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
| '''Neurologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Epidural abscess]], [[metastasis|leptomeningeal metastasis]], [[meningeal carcinomatosis]], [[subdural abscess]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
| '''Oncologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|Metatstatic carcinomas and [[adenocarcinomas]] , Meningeal [[leukemia]] , [[Meningeal carcinomatosis]] , [[Lymphoma]] , [[Leukemia]] , Disseminated carcinoma , Acute [[leukaemia]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[metastasis|Leptomeningeal metastasis]], [[meningeal carcinomatosis]]
 
 
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Systemic lupus erythematosus]] , [[Sarcoidosis]] , [[Kawasaki disease]] , [[Complement]] component deficiency  , [[Behcet's disease]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Behcet's disease]], [[complement deficiency]], [[Kawasaki disease]], [[sarcoidosis]], [[systemic lupus erythematosus]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Skull fracture]] , [[Head injury]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Head injury]], [[skull fracture]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|[[Western equine encephalitis ]] , Western [[encephalitis]] virus  , Weil's syndrome , [[Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome  ]], Postvaccination , NOMID syndrome , [[Familial Mediterranean fever ]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[vaccination|Post-vaccination]]
 
 
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
{{Multicol}}
 
*[[Abscess]]
{{Multicol|80%}}
 
*[[Acanthamoeba]]
*[[Acanthamoeba]]
*[[Actinomyces]] spp
*[[Acinetobacter]]
*[[Actinomycosis]]
*[[Actinomyces]]
*[[Acute leukaemia]]
*[[Adenovirus]]
*[[Adenovirus]]
*[[AIDS]]-Related Opportunistic Infections -cryptococcal [[meningitis]]
*[[Allopurinol]]
*Angiostrongylus cantonensis
*[[Amoxicillin]]
*[[Anthrax ]]
*[[Angiostrongylus cantonensis]]<ref name="pmid24862785">{{cite journal| author=Chi M, Kim HJ, Haug S, Vagefi R, Kersten RC| title=Acute eosinophilic meningitis and orbital inflammation from presumed angiostrongyliasis. | journal=Can J Ophthalmol | year= 2014 | volume= 49 | issue= 3 | pages= e65-7 | pmid=24862785 | doi=10.1016/j.jcjo.2014.02.011 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24862785  }} </ref>
*[[Anthrax]]
*[[Antiepileptic drugs]]<ref name="pmid19330481">{{cite journal| author=Maniyar F, Rooney C, Lily O, Bazaz R| title=Anticonvulsant hypersensitivity syndrome presenting as aseptic meningitis. | journal=J Neurol | year= 2009 | volume= 256 | issue= 7 | pages= 1190-1 | pmid=19330481 | doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5089-3 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19330481  }} </ref>
*[[Arboviruses]]
*[[Arboviruses]]
*[[Aspergillus]] spp
*[[Aspergillus]]<ref name="pmid24870817">{{cite journal| author=Starkey J, Moritani T, Kirby P| title=MRI of CNS Fungal Infections: Review of Aspergillosis to Histoplasmosis and Everything in Between. | journal=Clin Neuroradiol | year= 2014 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=24870817 | doi=10.1007/s00062-014-0305-7 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24870817  }} </ref>
*[[Azathioprine]]
*[[Azathioprine]]
*[[Bacteremia ]]
*[[Bacteremia]]
*[[Bacterial endocarditis]]
*[[Bacteroides]]
*[[Bacteroides]]
*[[Bartonellosis ]]
*[[Bartonellosis]]
*[[Behcet's disease]]
*[[Behcet's disease]]
*[[Blastomyces dermatitidis]]
*[[Blastomyces dermatitidis]]
*[[Borrelia burgdorferi]]
*[[Borrelia burgdorferi]]
*[[Borrelia]] recurrentis (relapsing fever)
*[[Brucella]]
*[[Brucella]] spp
*[[Burkholderia pseudomallei]]
*[[Burkholderia pseudomallei ]]
*[[California encephalitis virus]]
*[[California encephalitis virus ]]
*[[Campylobacter]]
*[[Campylobacter ]]
*[[Candida]]
*[[Candida]] spp
*[[Cetuximab]]<ref name="pmid19643807">{{cite journal| author=Feinstein TM, Gibson MK, Argiris A| title=Cetuximab-induced aseptic meningitis. | journal=Ann Oncol | year= 2009 | volume= 20 | issue= 9 | pages= 1609-10 | pmid=19643807 | doi=10.1093/annonc/mdp382 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19643807  }} </ref>
*[[Chagas disease]]
*[[Chagas disease]]
*[[Chicken pox]]
*[[Chicken pox]]
*[[Chlamydia]] spp
*[[Chlamydia]]
*[[Cholesteatoma]]
*[[Cholesteatoma]]
*[[Citrobacter|Citrobacter koseri]]<ref name="pmid24716069">{{cite journal| author=Rodrigues J, Rocha D, Santos F, João A| title=Neonatal Citrobacter koseri Meningitis: Report of Four Cases. | journal=Case Rep Pediatr | year= 2014 | volume= 2014 | issue=  | pages= 195204 | pmid=24716069 | doi=10.1155/2014/195204 | pmc=PMC3971854 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24716069  }} </ref>
*[[staphylococci|Coagulase-negative staphylococci]]
*[[Coccidioides immitis]]
*[[Coccidioides immitis]]
*[[Colorado tick fever ]]
*[[Colorado tick fever]]
*[[Common Variable Immunodeficiency]]
*[[Common variable immunodeficiency]]
*[[Complement]] component deficiency
*[[Complement deficiency]]
*Congenital [[herpes simplex]]
*[[Coxsackie A virus]]
*[[Coxsackie viruses]] types A and B
*[[Coxsackie B virus]]
*[[Cryptococcus neoformans]]
*[[Cryptococcus|Cryptococcus neoforman]]<ref name="pmid24872723">{{cite journal| author=Sloan DJ, Parris V| title=Cryptococcal meningitis: epidemiology and therapeutic options. | journal=Clin Epidemiol | year= 2014 | volume= 6 | issue=  | pages= 169-182 | pmid=24872723 | doi=10.2147/CLEP.S38850 | pmc=PMC4026566 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24872723  }} </ref>
*[[Cytomegalovirus]]
*[[Cytomegalovirus]]
*Disseminated carcinoma
*[[Eastern equine encephalitis virus]]
*Eastern [[encephalitis]] virus
*[[Echovirus]]
*[[ECHO viruses ]]
*[[Ehrlichiosis]]
*Encephalomyocarditis virus
*[[Enteroviruses]]
*[[Enteroviruses ]]
*[[Epidural abscess]]
{{ColBreak}}
*[[Epstein Barr virus]]
*[[Epstein Barr virus]]
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Escherichia coli]]
*[[Escherichia coli]]
*[[Familial Mediterranean fever ]]
 
*Group A [[Streptococcal Infections ]]
*[[Flavivirus]]<ref name="pmid24880028">{{cite journal| author=Neal JW| title=Flaviviruses are neurotropic , but how do they invade the CNS ? | journal=J Infect | year= 2014 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=24880028 | doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2014.05.010 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24880028  }} </ref>
*Group B [[Streptococcal Infections ]]
*[[Gram-negative bacilli]]
*[[Haemophilus influenzae]]
*[[Haemophilus influenzae]]
*Hand, Foot, & Mouth Disease
*[[Head injury]]
*Head injury
*[[herpes simplex|Herpes simplex type II]]
*[[Herpes simplex]] type 2
*[[herpes simplex|Herpes simplex type I]]
*[[Herpes simplex]] type I
*[[Herpes virus]] 6
*[[Histoplasma capsulatum]]
*[[Histoplasma capsulatum]]
*[[HIV]]
*[[Human immunodeficiency virus]]
*[[Influenza]] A and B
*[[Ibuprofen]]
*[[Influenza virus]]
*[[Intravenous immunoglobulin]]<ref name="pmid10738845">{{cite journal| author=Jolles S, Sewell WA, Leighton C| title=Drug-induced aseptic meningitis: diagnosis and management. | journal=Drug Saf | year= 2000 | volume= 22 | issue= 3 | pages= 215-26 | pmid=10738845 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10738845  }} </ref>
*[[Isoniazid]]
*[[JC virus]]<ref name="pmid24895208">{{cite journal| author=Agnihotri SP, Wuthrich C, Dang X, Nauen D, Karimi R, Viscidi R et al.| title=A fatal case of JC virus meningitis presenting with hydrocephalus in an HIV-seronegative patient. | journal=Ann Neurol | year= 2014 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=24895208 | doi=10.1002/ana.24192 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24895208  }} </ref>
*[[Kawasaki disease]]
*[[Kawasaki disease]]
*[[Klebsiella]]
*[[Kikuchi disease]]<ref name="pmid24746858">{{cite journal| author=Khishfe BF, Krass LM, Nordquist EK| title=Kikuchi disease presenting with aseptic meningitis. | journal=Am J Emerg Med | year= 2014 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=24746858 | doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2014.03.029 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24746858  }} </ref>
*[[Ibuprofen]]
*[[Klebsiella]]<ref name="pmid24863522">{{cite journal| author=Almeida SM, Nogueira Kda S, Palmeiro JK, Scheffer MC, Stier CJ, França JC et al.| title=Nosocomial meningitis caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae producing carbapenemase, with initial cerebrospinal fluid minimal inflammatory response. | journal=Arq Neuropsiquiatr | year= 2014 | volume= 72 | issue= 5 | pages= 398-9 | pmid=24863522 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24863522  }} </ref>
*[[Lamotrigine]]<ref name="pmid22357718">{{cite journal| author=Simms KM, Kortepeter C, Avigan M| title=Lamotrigine and aseptic meningitis. | journal=Neurology | year= 2012 | volume= 78 | issue= 12 | pages= 921-7 | pmid=22357718 | doi=10.1212/WNL.0b013e31824c4634 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22357718  }} </ref>
*[[Metastasis|Leptomeningeal metastasis]]<ref name="pmid24867803">{{cite journal| author=Chamberlain M, Soffietti R, Raizer J, Rudà R, Brandsma D, Boogerd W et al.| title=Leptomeningeal metastasis: a Response Assessment in Neuro-Oncology critical review of endpoints and response criteria of published randomized clinical trials. | journal=Neuro Oncol | year= 2014 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=24867803 | doi=10.1093/neuonc/nou089 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24867803  }} </ref>
*[[Leptospira]]
*[[Leptospira]]
*[[Leukemia]]
*[[Listeria monocytogenes]]
*[[Listeria monocytogenes]]
*[[Lyme disease ]]
*[[Lyme disease]]
*[[Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus]]
*[[Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus]]
*[[Lymphoma]]
*[[Malaria]]
*[[Malaria]]
*[[Measles]]
*[[Measles]]
*[[Meningeal carcinomatosis]]
*[[Meningeal carcinomatosis]]
*Meningeal [[leukemia]]
*[[Methotrexate]]
*Metatstatic carcinomas and [[adenocarcinomas]]
*[[Mumps virus]]
*[[Middle ear infection ]]
*Mountain tick fever
*[[Mumps]]
*[[Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare]]
*[[Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare]]
*[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]
*[[Mycoplasma hominis]]
*[[Mycoplasma hominis]]
*[[Mycoplasma pneumoniae]]
*[[Mycoplasma pneumoniae]]
*[[Neisseria meningiditis]]
*[[Naegleria fowleri]]
*[[Nocardia ]]
*[[Neisseria meningitidis]]
*NOMID syndrome
*[[Nocardia]]
*[[NSAIDs]]
*[[NSAIDs]]<ref name="pmid2064481">{{cite journal| author=Hoppmann RA, Peden JG, Ober SK| title=Central nervous system side effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Aseptic meningitis, psychosis, and cognitive dysfunction. | journal=Arch Intern Med | year= 1991 | volume= 151 | issue= 7 | pages= 1309-13 | pmid=2064481 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2064481  }} </ref>
*[[Otitis media]]
*[[Oxaprozin]]
*[[Parainfluenza]]
*[[Parainfluenza]]
*Parameningeal bacterial infection , [[epidural abscess]] , subdural abscess
*[[Pasteurella multocida]]
*[[Pasteurella multocida ]]
*[[Pasteurella|Pasteurella stomatis]]<ref name="pmid24895000">{{cite journal| author=Foguem C| title=Rare Case of Catastrophic Diffuse Hemorrhage Complicating Sepsis and Meningitis Due to Pasteurella stomatis in an Elderly Woman Mimicking Hemorrhagic Septicemia. | journal=J Am Med Dir Assoc | year= 2014 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=24895000 | doi=10.1016/j.jamda.2014.04.008 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24895000  }} </ref>
{{ColBreak}}
*[[Pergolide]]
*[[Phenazopyridine]]
*[[Poliovirus]]
*[[Poliovirus]]
*Postvaccination
*[[vaccination|Post-vaccination]]<ref name="pmid24832716">{{cite journal| author=Riedmann EM| title=Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics: news. | journal=Hum Vaccin Immunother | year= 2014 | volume= 10 | issue= 1 | pages= 3-6 | pmid=24832716 | doi=10.4161/hv.28052 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24832716  }} </ref>
*[[encephalitis|Powassan encephalitis]]
 
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]
*[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]
*[[phenazopyridine]]
*[[Rabies virus]]
*[[Rabies]]
*[[Rat-bite fever]]
*[[Rat-bite fever ]]
*[[Relapsing fever]]
*[[Rickettsia]]
*[[Rickettsia]]
*[[Rocky Mountain spotted fever]]
*[[Rofecoxib]]
*[[Roseola]]<ref name="pmid24819578">{{cite journal| author=Schwartz KL, Richardson SE, Ward KN, Donaldson C, Macgregor D, Banwell B et al.| title=Delayed Primary HHV-7 Infection and Neurologic Disease. | journal=Pediatrics | year= 2014 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=24819578 | doi=10.1542/peds.2013-3344 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24819578  }} </ref>
*[[Rotavirus]]
*[[Rotavirus]]
*[[Rubella]]
*[[Rubella]]
*[[Salmonella]]
*[[Salmonella]]
*[[Sarcoid]]
*[[Salmonella enterica]]<ref name="pmid24884674">{{cite journal| author=Lombardi D, Malaspina S, Strippoli A, Lucarelli C, Luzzi I, Ripabelli G| title=Salmonella enterica serovar Virchow meningitis in a young man in Italy: a case report. | journal=J Med Case Rep | year= 2014 | volume= 8 | issue= 1 | pages= 139 | pmid=24884674 | doi=10.1186/1752-1947-8-139 | pmc=PMC4031895 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24884674  }} </ref>
*[[Sarcoidosis]]
*[[Schistosomiasis]]
*[[Schistosomiasis]]
*[[Secondary syphilis]]
*[[Serratia]]
*[[Serratia ]]
*[[Serratia marcescens]]<ref name="pmid24814159">{{cite journal| author=Ersoz G, Uguz M, Aslan G, Horasan ES, Kaya A| title=Outbreak of meningitis due to Serratia marcescens after spinal anaesthesia. | journal=J Hosp Infect | year= 2014 | volume= 87 | issue= 2 | pages= 122-5 | pmid=24814159 | doi=10.1016/j.jhin.2014.03.004 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24814159  }} </ref>
*[[herpes virus|Simian herpes B virus]]
*[[Sinusitis]]
*[[Sinusitis]]
*Skull fracture
*[[Skull fracture]]
*Spirillum minor (rat bite fever)
*[[Sporothrix schenckii]]
*[[Sporothrix schenckii]]
*St. Louis encephalitis virus  
*[[St. Louis encephalitis|St. Louis encephalitis virus]]
*[[Staphylococcus aureus]]
*[[Staphylococcus aureus]]
*Streptococcal Group B
*[[Streptococcus agalactiae]]
*[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]
*[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]
*Systemic [[candidiasis]]
*[[Streptococcus suis]]<ref name="pmid24856779">{{cite journal| author=Gómez-Zorrilla S, Ardanuy C, Lora-Tamayo J, Cámara J, García-Somoza D, Peña C et al.| title=Streptococcus suis Infection and Malignancy in Man, Spain. | journal=Emerg Infect Dis | year= 2014 | volume= 20 | issue= 6 | pages=  | pmid=24856779 | doi=10.3201/eid2006.131167 | pmc=PMC4036790 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24856779  }} </ref>
*[[Subdural abscess]]
*[[Syphilis]]
*[[Systemic lupus erythematosus]]
*[[Systemic lupus erythematosus]]
*[[Toxoplasma gondii]]
*[[Toxoplasma gondii]]
*[[Treponema pallidum]] [[syphilis]]
*[[Brain tumor surgery|Transsphenoidal surgery]]<ref name="pmid24851153">{{cite journal| author=Yoon KW, Cho CS, Lee SK| title=Large intracranial aneurysm after transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary macroadenoma. | journal=J Korean Neurosurg Soc | year= 2014 | volume= 55 | issue= 3 | pages= 160-3 | pmid=24851153 | doi=10.3340/jkns.2014.55.3.160 | pmc=PMC4024817 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24851153  }} </ref>
*[[Treponema pallidum]]
*[[Trichinosis]]
*[[Trichinosis]]
*[[Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole]]
*[[Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole]]<ref name="pmid1613713">{{cite journal| author=Escalante A, Stimmler MM| title=Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxasole induced meningitis in systemic lupus erythematosus. | journal=J Rheumatol | year= 1992 | volume= 19 | issue= 5 | pages= 800-2 | pmid=1613713 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1613713  }} </ref>
*[[Trypanosomiasis ]]
*[[Trypanosomiasis]]
*[[Typhoid fever ]]
*[[Tuberculous meningitis]]
*[[Typhoid fever]]
*[[Varicella zoster virus]]
*[[Varicella zoster virus]]
*[[Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus ]]
*[[Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus]]
*[[Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome ]]
*[[Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome]]
*Weil's syndrome
*[[West Nile virus]]
*Western [[encephalitis]] virus
*[[Western equine encephalitis virus]]
*[[Western equine encephalitis ]]
*[[Whipple's disease]]
*[[Whipple's Disease]]
*[[X-linked agammaglobulinemia]]<ref name="pmid24885015">{{cite journal| author=Van Vu Q, Wada T, Le HT, Le HT, Van Nguyen AT, Osamu O et al.| title=Clinical and mutational features of Vietnamese children with X-linked agammaglobulinemia. | journal=BMC Pediatr | year= 2014 | volume= 14 | issue= 1 | pages= 129 | pmid=24885015 | doi=10.1186/1471-2431-14-129 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24885015  }} </ref>
*[[Yersinia pestis]]
*[[Yersinia pestis]]
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==References==
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[[Category:Disease]]
[[Category:Disease]]
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[[Category:Inflammations]]
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Latest revision as of 22:41, 29 July 2020

Meningitis Main Page

Patient Information

Overview

Causes

Classification

Viral Meningitis
Bacterial Meningitis
Fungal Meningitis

Differential Diagnosis

Diagnosis

Treatment

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief: Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [2]; Mugilan Poongkunran M.B.B.S [3]

Overview

Most cases of meningitis are caused by microorganisms, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasite, that spread through blood and into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).[1] Non-infectious causes include cancer, systemic lupus erythematosus and certain drugs. The most common cause of meningitis is viral, and often runs its course within a few days. Bacterial meningitis is the second most frequent type and can be serious and life-threatening. Numerous microorganisms may cause bacterial meningitis, but Neisseria meningitidis and Streptococcus pneumoniae are the most common pathogens in patients without immune deficiency, with meningococcal disease being more common in children. Staphylococcus aureus may complicate neurosurgical operations, and Listeria monocytogenes is associated with poor nutritional state and alcoholicism. Haemophilus influenzae (type B) incidence has been much reduced by immunization in many countries. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (the causative agent of tuberculosis) rarely causes meningitis in Western countries but is common and feared in countries where tuberculosis is endemic.

Causes

Life Threatening Causes

Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.

Common Causes

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular No underlying causes
Chemical/Poisoning No underlying causes
Dental No underlying causes
Dermatologic Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome
Drug Side Effect Allopurinol, amoxicillin, antiepileptic drugs, azathioprine, cetuximab, ibuprofen, intravenous immunoglobulin, isoniazid, lamotrigine, methotrexate, NSAIDs, Oxaprozin, Pergolide, phenazopyridine, rofecoxib, Sulfasalazine, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, Ziconotide
Ear Nose Throat Cholesteatoma, otitis media, sinusitis
Endocrine No underlying causes
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic Whipple's disease
Genetic Common variable immunodeficiency, X-linked agammaglobulinemia
Hematologic Kikuchi disease, X-linked agammaglobulinemia
Iatrogenic Transsphenoidal surgery
Infectious Disease Acanthamoeba, Actinomyces, Acinetobacter, adenovirus, Angiostrongylus cantonensis, anthrax, arboviruses, Aspergillus, bacteremia, Bacteroides, Bartonellosis, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Borrelia burgdorferi, Brucella, Burkholderia pseudomallei, California encephalitis virus, campylobacter, candida, Chagas disease, chicken pox, Chlamydia, Citrobacter koseri, coagulase-negative staphylococci, Coccidioides immitis, Colorado tick fever, coxsackie A virus, coxsackie B virus, Cryptococcus neoforman, cytomegalovirus, eastern equine encephalitis virus, echovirus, Ehrlichiosis, enteroviruses, epidural abscess, Epstein Barr virus, Escherichia coli, flavivirus, gram-negative bacilli, Haemophilus influenzae, herpes simplex type II, herpes simplex type I, Histoplasma capsulatum, human immunodeficiency virus, influenza virus, Klebsiella, Leptospira, Listeria monocytogenes, Lyme disease, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, malaria, measles, mumps virus, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare, Mycoplasma hominis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Naegleria fowleri, neisseria meningitidis, Nocardia, Non-Group B streptococci, otitis media, parainfluenza, Pasteurella multocida, Pasteurella stomatis, poliovirus, Powassan encephalitis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, rabies virus, Rat-bite fever, relapsing fever, Rickettsia, rocky mountain spotted fever, roseola, rotavirus, rubella, Salmonella, Schistosomiasis, Serratia, Serratia marcescens, simian herpes B virus, sinusitis, Sporothrix schenckii, St. Louis encephalitis virus, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus suis, subdural abscess, syphilis, Toxoplasma gondii, Treponema pallidum, Trichinosis, Trypanosomiasis, tuberculous meningitis, typhoid fever, varicella zoster virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, west nile virus, western equine encephalitis virus, Yersinia pestis
Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic No underlying causes
Neurologic Epidural abscess, leptomeningeal metastasis, meningeal carcinomatosis, subdural abscess
Nutritional/Metabolic No underlying causes
Obstetric/Gynecologic No underlying causes
Oncologic Leptomeningeal metastasis, meningeal carcinomatosis
Ophthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose/Toxicity No underlying causes
Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary No underlying causes
Renal/Electrolyte No underlying causes
Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy Behcet's disease, complement deficiency, Kawasaki disease, sarcoidosis, systemic lupus erythematosus
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma Head injury, skull fracture
Urologic No underlying causes
Miscellaneous Post-vaccination

Causes in Alphabetical Order


References

  1. ↑ Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed. ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 876&ndash, 9. ISBN 0838585299.
  2. ↑ Chi M, Kim HJ, Haug S, Vagefi R, Kersten RC (2014). "Acute eosinophilic meningitis and orbital inflammation from presumed angiostrongyliasis". Can J Ophthalmol. 49 (3): e65–7. doi:10.1016/j.jcjo.2014.02.011. PMID 24862785.
  3. ↑ Maniyar F, Rooney C, Lily O, Bazaz R (2009). "Anticonvulsant hypersensitivity syndrome presenting as aseptic meningitis". J Neurol. 256 (7): 1190–1. doi:10.1007/s00415-009-5089-3. PMID 19330481.
  4. ↑ Starkey J, Moritani T, Kirby P (2014). "MRI of CNS Fungal Infections: Review of Aspergillosis to Histoplasmosis and Everything in Between". Clin Neuroradiol. doi:10.1007/s00062-014-0305-7. PMID 24870817.
  5. ↑ Feinstein TM, Gibson MK, Argiris A (2009). "Cetuximab-induced aseptic meningitis". Ann Oncol. 20 (9): 1609–10. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdp382. PMID 19643807.
  6. ↑ Rodrigues J, Rocha D, Santos F, João A (2014). "Neonatal Citrobacter koseri Meningitis: Report of Four Cases". Case Rep Pediatr. 2014: 195204. doi:10.1155/2014/195204. PMC 3971854. PMID 24716069.
  7. ↑ Sloan DJ, Parris V (2014). "Cryptococcal meningitis: epidemiology and therapeutic options". Clin Epidemiol. 6: 169–182. doi:10.2147/CLEP.S38850. PMC 4026566. PMID 24872723.
  8. ↑ Neal JW (2014). "Flaviviruses are neurotropic , but how do they invade the CNS ?". J Infect. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2014.05.010. PMID 24880028.
  9. ↑ Jolles S, Sewell WA, Leighton C (2000). "Drug-induced aseptic meningitis: diagnosis and management". Drug Saf. 22 (3): 215–26. PMID 10738845.
  10. ↑ Agnihotri SP, Wuthrich C, Dang X, Nauen D, Karimi R, Viscidi R; et al. (2014). "A fatal case of JC virus meningitis presenting with hydrocephalus in an HIV-seronegative patient". Ann Neurol. doi:10.1002/ana.24192. PMID 24895208.
  11. ↑ Khishfe BF, Krass LM, Nordquist EK (2014). "Kikuchi disease presenting with aseptic meningitis". Am J Emerg Med. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2014.03.029. PMID 24746858.
  12. ↑ Almeida SM, Nogueira Kda S, Palmeiro JK, Scheffer MC, Stier CJ, França JC; et al. (2014). "Nosocomial meningitis caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae producing carbapenemase, with initial cerebrospinal fluid minimal inflammatory response". Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 72 (5): 398–9. PMID 24863522.
  13. ↑ Simms KM, Kortepeter C, Avigan M (2012). "Lamotrigine and aseptic meningitis". Neurology. 78 (12): 921–7. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31824c4634. PMID 22357718.
  14. ↑ Chamberlain M, Soffietti R, Raizer J, Rudà R, Brandsma D, Boogerd W; et al. (2014). "Leptomeningeal metastasis: a Response Assessment in Neuro-Oncology critical review of endpoints and response criteria of published randomized clinical trials". Neuro Oncol. doi:10.1093/neuonc/nou089. PMID 24867803.
  15. ↑ Hoppmann RA, Peden JG, Ober SK (1991). "Central nervous system side effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Aseptic meningitis, psychosis, and cognitive dysfunction". Arch Intern Med. 151 (7): 1309–13. PMID 2064481.
  16. ↑ Foguem C (2014). "Rare Case of Catastrophic Diffuse Hemorrhage Complicating Sepsis and Meningitis Due to Pasteurella stomatis in an Elderly Woman Mimicking Hemorrhagic Septicemia". J Am Med Dir Assoc. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2014.04.008. PMID 24895000.
  17. ↑ Riedmann EM (2014). "Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics: news". Hum Vaccin Immunother. 10 (1): 3–6. doi:10.4161/hv.28052. PMID 24832716.
  18. ↑ Schwartz KL, Richardson SE, Ward KN, Donaldson C, Macgregor D, Banwell B; et al. (2014). "Delayed Primary HHV-7 Infection and Neurologic Disease". Pediatrics. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-3344. PMID 24819578.
  19. ↑ Lombardi D, Malaspina S, Strippoli A, Lucarelli C, Luzzi I, Ripabelli G (2014). "Salmonella enterica serovar Virchow meningitis in a young man in Italy: a case report". J Med Case Rep. 8 (1): 139. doi:10.1186/1752-1947-8-139. PMC 4031895. PMID 24884674.
  20. ↑ Ersoz G, Uguz M, Aslan G, Horasan ES, Kaya A (2014). "Outbreak of meningitis due to Serratia marcescens after spinal anaesthesia". J Hosp Infect. 87 (2): 122–5. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2014.03.004. PMID 24814159.
  21. ↑ Gómez-Zorrilla S, Ardanuy C, Lora-Tamayo J, Cámara J, García-Somoza D, Peña C; et al. (2014). "Streptococcus suis Infection and Malignancy in Man, Spain". Emerg Infect Dis. 20 (6). doi:10.3201/eid2006.131167. PMC 4036790. PMID 24856779.
  22. ↑ Yoon KW, Cho CS, Lee SK (2014). "Large intracranial aneurysm after transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary macroadenoma". J Korean Neurosurg Soc. 55 (3): 160–3. doi:10.3340/jkns.2014.55.3.160. PMC 4024817. PMID 24851153.
  23. ↑ Escalante A, Stimmler MM (1992). "Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxasole induced meningitis in systemic lupus erythematosus". J Rheumatol. 19 (5): 800–2. PMID 1613713.
  24. ↑ Van Vu Q, Wada T, Le HT, Le HT, Van Nguyen AT, Osamu O; et al. (2014). "Clinical and mutational features of Vietnamese children with X-linked agammaglobulinemia". BMC Pediatr. 14 (1): 129. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-14-129. PMID 24885015.

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