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__NOTOC__
{{Taxobox | color = khaki
| name = ''Naegleria fowleri''
| image = Naegleria.png
| image_width = 153px
| image_caption = Different stages of ''Naegleria fowleri''
| domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
| unranked_phylum = [[Excavata]]
| phylum = [[Percolozoa]]
| classis = [[Heterolobosea]]
| ordo = [[Schizopyrenida]]
| familia = [[Vahlkampfiidae]]
| genus = ''[[Naegleria]]''
| species = '''N. fowleri'''
| binomial = ''Naegleria fowleri''
| binomial_authority = [[Carter]] (1970)
}}
{{SI}}
{{SI}}
{{About0|Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis}}
{{CMG}}
{{CMG}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
Naegleria fowleri, commonly referred to as the "brain-eating amoeba" or "brain-eating ameba", is a free-living microscopic ameba, (single-celled living organism). It can cause a rare and devastating infection of the brain called primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/Ncidod/dpd/parasites/naegleria/factsht_naegleria.htm |title=The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Parasitic Diseases - Naegleria Infection Fact Sheet |accessdate=2007-10-09 |format= |work=}}</ref> The ameba is commonly found in warm freshwater (e.g. lakes, rivers, and hot springs) and soil. Naegleria fowleri usually infects people when contaminated water enters the body through the nose. Once the ameba enters the nose, it travels to the brain where it causes PAM, which is usually fatal. Infection typically occurs when people go swimming or diving in warm freshwater places, like lakes and rivers. In very rare instances, Naegleria infections may also occur when contaminated water from other sources (such as inadequately chlorinated swimming pool water or heated and contaminated tapwater) enters the nose. This infection will nearly always result in the death of the victim. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news110255496.html |title=6 Die From Brain-Eating Amoeba in Lakes |accessdate=2007-10-03 |format= |work=}}</ref>
'''''Naegleria fowleri''''' (also known as the [[brain]] eating amoeba) is a ubiquitous, free living [[amoeba]] typically grows contaminated, warm (25–35 °C / 77–95 °F), fresh water (e.g. lakes or hot springs). It belongs to a group called the ''[[Percolozoa]]'' or ''Heterolobosea''. ''N. fowleri'' is transmitted to the humans through the nose when individuals swim/dive in lakes. Drinking contaminated water, however, does not result in transmission. ''N. fowleri'' causes primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), a rare disease whereby ''N. fowleri'' invades the human central nervous system through the cibriform plate and causes fulminant fatal meningoencephalitis in the majority of cases.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/Ncidod/dpd/parasites/naegleria/factsht_naegleria.htm |title=The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Parasitic Diseases - Naegleria Infection Fact Sheet |accessdate=2007-10-09 |format= |work=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news110255496.html |title=6 Die From Brain-Eating Amoeba in Lakes |accessdate=2007-10-03 |format= |work=}}</ref>


==Epidemiology and Demographics==
==Taxonomy==
The first PAM infections were reported in 1965 in Australia. The ameba identified caused a fatal infection in 1961 and turned out to be a new species that has since been named Naegleria fowleri after one of the original authors of the report, M. Fowler. The first infections in the U.S., which occurred in 1962 in Florida, were reported soon after. Subsequent investigations in Virginia using archived autopsy tissue samples identified PAM infections that had occurred in Virginia as early as 1937.
*Phylum = ''[[Percolozoa]]''
*Class = ''[[Heterolobosea]]''
*Order = ''Schizopyrenida''
*Family = ''Vahlkampfiidae''
*Genus = ''[[Naegleria]]''
* Species = '''''N. fowleri'''''
*Binomial = ''Naegleria fowleri''


PAM infections have been reported from around the world. Infections have primarily occurred in southern-tier states in the U.S., but infections were documented in Minnesota in 2010 and 2012. Over half of all reported infections have occurred in Florida and Texas. In the United States and the rest of the world, PAM is primarily spread via swimming in warm freshwater lakes and rivers (about 3 out of 4 U.S. infections from 1962-2012). Other recreational water types like hot springs and canals have also been linked to PAM infections.
==Biology==
Shown below is an the life cycle of ''N. fowleri'':<br>
[[Image:Free-living amebic infections.png|700px]]


Four infections in the U.S. have been associated with using water from drinking water systems to swim, immerse the head in a bathtub, or mix solutions for nasal irrigation using a neti pot. PAM infections also occurred in the 1970s and 1980s in Australia that were linked to showering, swimming, or having other nasal exposure to contaminated drinking water. The infections were linked to piping drinking water overland, sometimes for hundreds of kilometers, that resulted in the water being heated and having low disinfectant levels that resulted in the water and pipes becoming colonized by Naegleria fowleri. Several water systems in the states of Western Australia and South Australia continue to have to monitor regularly for Naegleria fowleri colonization in drinking water distribution systems 20. Infections due to contaminated water being used for religious practices have also been reported.
*''N. fowleri'' grows ideally at 42 °C (108 °F), but it can tolerate temperatures as high as 45 °C (113 °F).<ref name="pmid6756287">{{cite journal| author=John DT| title=Primary amebic meningoencephalitis and the biology of Naegleria fowleri. | journal=Annu Rev Microbiol | year= 1982 | volume= 36 | issue=  | pages= 101-23 | pmid=6756287 | doi=10.1146/annurev.mi.36.100182.000533 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6756287  }} </ref>
*There are 3 morphological stages in the life cycle of ''Naegleria fowleri'':<ref name="pmid6756287">{{cite journal| author=John DT| title=Primary amebic meningoencephalitis and the biology of Naegleria fowleri. | journal=Annu Rev Microbiol | year= 1982 | volume= 36 | issue=  | pages= 101-23 | pmid=6756287 | doi=10.1146/annurev.mi.36.100182.000533 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6756287  }} </ref>
:*'''Trophozoite''': 10-30 mu - Infective stage characterized by the presence of contractile vacuoles. It reproduces by binary fission. It uses pseudopods structure to ingest other organisms, red blood cells, and white blood cells.
:*'''Flagellate''': A temporary stage when the organism is exposed to changes in pH (e.g. from culture to distilled water).
:*'''Cyst''': 7-14 μm - A resistant stage whereby the organism is protected by a dense cell wall that can tolerate harsh environments, such as cold weather or states of low nutrition. Cysts may be transmitted to the human host and transformed into trophozoites.


==Pathophysiology==
==Structure==
Naegleria fowleri is a heat-loving (thermophilic), free-living ameba (single-celled microbe), commonly found around the world in warm fresh water (like lakes, rivers, and hot springs) and soil. Naegleria fowleri is the only species of Naegleria known to infect people. Most of the time, Naegleria fowleri lives in freshwater habitats by feeding on bacteria. However, in rare instances, the ameba can infect humans by entering the nose during water-related activities. Once in the nose, the ameba travels to the brain and causes a severe brain infection called primary meningoencephalitis (PAM), which is usually fatal.
*''N. fowleri'' is a facultatively aerobic, heterotrophic organism.<ref name="pmid17576098">{{cite journal| author=Park JS, Simpson AG, Lee WJ, Cho BC| title=Ultrastructure and phylogenetic placement within Heterolobosea of the previously unclassified, extremely halophilic heterotrophic flagellate Pleurostomum flabellatum (Ruinen 1938). | journal=Protist | year= 2007 | volume= 158 | issue= 3 | pages= 397-413 | pmid=17576098 | doi=10.1016/j.protis.2007.03.004 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17576098  }} </ref>
*In its trophozoite form, it may appear either ameboid or flagellated.
*It contains the following structures for survival and growth:
::*Mitochondria
::*Pseudopods
::*Flagella
::*Contractile vacuoles


===Life Cycle===
==Tropism==
Naegleria fowleri has 3 stages in its life cycle: ameboid trophozoites, flagellates, and cysts. The only infective stage of the ameba is the ameboid trophozoite. Trophozoites are 10-35 µm long with a granular appearance and a single nucleus. The trophozoites replicate by binary division during which the nuclear membrane remains intact (a process called promitosis). Trophozoites infect humans or animals by penetrating the nasal tissue and migrating to the brain via the olfactory nerves causing primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM).
*''N. fowleri'' invades the central nervous system (highly oxygenated environment) and causes [[primary amoebic meningoencephalitis|meningoencephalitis]].<ref name="pmid6756287">{{cite journal| author=John DT| title=Primary amebic meningoencephalitis and the biology of Naegleria fowleri. | journal=Annu Rev Microbiol | year= 1982 | volume= 36 | issue= | pages= 101-23 | pmid=6756287 | doi=10.1146/annurev.mi.36.100182.000533 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6756287  }} </ref>
 
*''N. fowleri'' is transmitted to humans via the nasal cavity into the cribriform plate.
Trophozoites can turn into a temporary, non-feeding, flagellated stage (10-16 µm in length) when stimulated by adverse environmental changes such as a reduced food source. They revert back to the trophozoite stage when favorable conditions return. Naegleria fowleri trophozoites are found in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and tissue, while flagellated forms are occasionally found in CSF. Cysts are not seen in brain tissue. If the environment is not conducive to continued feeding and growth (like cold temperatures, food becomes scarce) the ameba or flagellate will form a cyst. The cyst form is spherical and about 7-15 µm in diameter. It has a smooth, single-layered wall with a single nucleus. Cysts are environmentally resistant in order to increase the chances of survival until better environmental conditions occur.
*It invades the subarachnoid spaces by migrating along the mesaxonal of unmyelinated olfactory nerves.
 
*When it reaches the subarachnoid space, it may then disseminate to other tissues of the central nervous system.
===Environmental Resistance===
*It migrates along the mesaxonal spaces of unmyelinated
Naegleria fowleri is normally found in the natural environment and is well adapted to surviving in various habitats, particularly warm-water environments. Although the trophozoite stage is relatively sensitive to environmental changes, the cysts are more environmentally hardy. There are no means yet known that would control natural Naegleria fowleri levels in lakes and rivers.
==Natural Reservoir==
 
*The natural reservoir of ''N. fowleri'' are typically fresh water lakes and hot springs.
Drying: Drying appears to make trophozoites nonviable instantaneously and cysts nonviable in <5 min.
*''N. fowleri'' has also been isolated from:<ref name="pmid17576098">{{cite journal| author=Park JS, Simpson AG, Lee WJ, Cho BC| title=Ultrastructure and phylogenetic placement within Heterolobosea of the previously unclassified, extremely halophilic heterotrophic flagellate Pleurostomum flabellatum (Ruinen 1938). | journal=Protist | year= 2007 | volume= 158 | issue= 3 | pages= 397-413 | pmid=17576098 | doi=10.1016/j.protis.2007.03.004 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17576098  }} </ref>
 
::*Soil
Temperature: Naegleria fowleri is a heat-loving (thermophilic) ameba able to grow and survive at higher temperatures, such as those found in hot springs and in the human body, even under fever temperatures. Naegleria fowleri grows best at higher temperatures up to 115°F (46°C). Although the amebae may not be able to grow well, Naegleria fowleri can still survive at higher temperatures for short periods of time. The trophozoites and cysts can survive from minutes to hours at 122-149°F (50-65°C) with the cysts being more resistant at these temperatures. Although trophozoites are killed rapidly by refrigeration, cysts can survive for weeks to months at cold temperatures above freezing, although they appear to be sensitive to freezing 9, 11. As a result, colder temperatures are likely to cause Naegleria fowleri to encyst in lake and river sediment where the cyst offers more protection from freezing water temperatures.
::*Swimming pools
 
::*Home showers
Disinfection: Naegleria fowleri trophozoites and the more resistant cysts are sensitive to chlorination and monochloramine used for disinfection of drinking water and swimming pools if adequate levels are maintained and monitored. The chlorine sensitivity is moderate and in the same range as the cysts from Giardia intestinalis, another waterborne pathogen.
::*Sewers
 
::*Cooling towers
Salinity: Naegleria fowleri does not survive in sea water and has not been detected in sea water.
 
==Risk Factors==
===High Temperature===
Naegleria fowleri is a heat-loving (thermophilic) ameba found around the world. Naegleria fowleri grows best at higher temperatures up to 115°F (46°C; see Pathogen and Environment page) and can survive for short periods at higher temperatures.
 
===Warm Fresh Water===
Naegleria fowleri is naturally found in warm freshwater environments such as lakes and rivers, naturally hot (geothermal) water such as hot springs, warm water discharge from industrial or power plants, geothermal well water, poorly maintained or minimally chlorinated swimming pools, water heaters, and soil, where it lives by feeding on bacteria and other microbes in the environment. Sampling of lakes in the southern tier of the U.S. indicates that Naegleria fowleri is commonly present in many southern tier lakes in the U.S. during the summer. Naegleria is not found in salt water, like the ocean.
 
 
 
==Infection==
[[Image:Free-living amebic infections.png|thumb|left|Life cycle of ''N. fowleri'' and other free-living Amebae.  Click to enlarge and view caption.]]
In humans, ''N. fowleri'' can invade the [[central nervous system]] via the nose, more specifically the [[olfactory mucosa]] and nasal tissues. The penetration initially results in significant [[necrosis]] of and [[hemorrhaging]] in the [[olfactory bulb]]s. From there, amoebae climb along [[nerve]] fibers through the floor of the cranium via the cribriform plate and into the brain. It then becomes [[pathogenic]], causing [[primary amoebic meningoencephalitis]] (PAM or PAME).  PAM is a [[syndrome]] affecting the [[central nervous system]], characterized by changes in olfactory perception (taste and smell), followed by [[vomiting]], [[nausea]], [[fever]], [[headache]], and the rapid onset of [[coma]] and [[death]] in two weeks.
 
PAM usually occurs in healthy children or young adults with no prior history of immune compromise who have recently been exposed to bodies of fresh water.
 
[[Amphotericin B]] is currently the most effective known pharmacologic treatment for ''N. fowleri'', but the prognosis remains bleak for those that contract PAM, as only eight patients have survived (3% survival rate) in a clinical setting. Amphotericin B devastates ''N. fowleri'' organisms in laboratory settings; it, in combination with systemic [[rifampicin]], is the preferred choice in ''N. fowleri'' treatment. 
 
A more aggressive [[antibody]] [[serum]]-based treatment is being pursued, and may eventually prove more effective than modern broad-spectrum [[antibiotic]] targeting. 
 
Timely diagnosis remains a very significant impediment to the successful treatment of infection, as most cases have only been appreciated post-mortem. It killed 23 people in the US from 1995 to 2004, and has killed six in the year of 2007 (3 in [[Florida]], 2 in [[Texas]], and 1 in [[Arizona]]).
 
==Detection==
''N. fowleri'' can be grown in several kinds of liquid [[axenic]] media or on non-nutrient [[agar]] plates coated with bacteria. Detection in water is performed by [[centrifuge|centrifuging]] a water sample with ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' added, and then applying the pellet to a non-nutrient agar plate. After several days the plate is microscopically inspected and ''Naegleria'' cysts are identified by their morphology. Final confirmation of the species' identity can be performed by various molecular or biochemical methods.<ref>{{citation|author=Pougnard et al.|url=http://aem.asm.org/cgi/content/full/68/6/3102 |title=Rapid Detection and Enumeration of Naegleria fowleri in Surface Waters by Solid-Phase Cytometry |volume=68|issue=6|pages=3102–3107|periodical=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |accessdate=2007-07-18}}</ref>
Confirmation of Naegleria presence can be done by so called flagellation test, when amoeba is exposed to hypotonic environment (distilled water). Naegleria in contrast to other amoebae differentiates within two hours into flagellar state.
Pathogenicity can be further confirmed by exposition to high temperature (42°C), where is Naegleria fowleri as pathogenic species of Naegleria able to grow in contrast to Naegleria gruberi etc.
 
==Incidents and outbreaks==
===Czech Republic===
[[Image:Méningo-encéphalite_amibienne_primitive.JPG|left|thumb|Histopathology of amoebic meningoencephalitis.]]
*Between years [[1962]]–[[1965]], 16 young persons died of acute meningoencephalitides in [[Ústí nad Labem]] as a consequence of bathing in an indoor [[swimming pool]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Červa |first=L. |authorlink= |coauthors=K. Novák |title=Ameobic meningoencephalitis: sixteen fatalities.|journal=Science|volume=160 |date = [[April 5]], [[1968]] |pages=92 }}</ref>
===United States===
According to the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]], the amoeba killed 23 people between 1995 and 2004.
* In August 2005, two Oklahoma boys, ages 7 and 9 were killed by ''N. fowleri'' after swimming in hot stagnant water of the lakes in the Tulsa area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/1448/63 |title=Parasitic Infection Kills Two Tulsa Swimmers |accessdate=2005-08-06 |format= |work=}}</ref>
* In 2007, six cases were reported in the U.S., all fatal:<ref> [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/28/AR2007092801041.html Six Die From Brain-Eating Amoeba in Lakes], an [[Associated Press]] article via ''[[The Washington Post]]''</ref>
** In July, the amoeba caused the deaths of three boys in lakes around [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]]. Possible causes of the infections include higher temperature and droughts in that area of Florida.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/09/18/zarrella.killerlakes/index.html |title=Deadly amoeba lurks in Florida lakes |accessdate=2007-07-19 |format= |work=}}</ref>
** In late summer, the amoeba caused the death of a 12-year-old boy and a 22-year-old young man in [[Lake LBJ]] in [[Texas]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.txcn.com/sharedcontent/dws/txcn/austin/stories/090807kvueamoebicawareness-mm.b61b59e9.html |title= Deadly lake disease causing concern in Texas|accessdate=2007-09-10 |format= |work=}}</ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/10/04/amoeba.lake/index.html]
** In September, a 14-year-old boy was killed by the amoeba after likely having caught it while swimming in [[Lake Havasu]] in [[Arizona]]. The doctors suspected [[meningitis]] before the boy died, but did not know the [[etiology]] until the [[Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention|CDC]] confirmed it as ''N. fowleri''.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.kpho.com/news/14214579/detail.html | title = Brain-Eating Amoeba Kills Arizona Boy | accessdate = 2007-09-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,298338,00.html| title = Arizona Teen Becomes Sixth Victim This Year of Brain-Eating Amoeba| accessdate = 2007-09-27}}</ref>
 
==Pop culture references==
* ''Naegleria fowleri'' was featured on the TV show ''[[House (TV series)|House]]'', in a two-part season 2 episode ("Euphoria" parts [[Euphoria, Part 1|1]] and [[Euphoria, Part 2|2]]).  The writers took [[dramatic license]] with one of the disease's symptoms.  Both characters developed [[Anton's blindness]], a condition affecting the occipital lobes where the patient thinks he can see but really cannot.  This is not consistent with ''N. fowleri'', whose initial symptoms are "alteration in taste ([[ageusia]]) or smell ([[parosmia]])".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic1582.htm |title=Naegleria Infection|author=Barnett Gibbs, MD|coauthors=Diane H Johson, MD|publisher=emedicine|accessdate=2007-07-19 |format= |work=}}</ref>
* A "brain-sucking amoeba" that infects swimmers was mentioned in the season 1 episode of ''[[The X-files]]'', "[[Darkness Falls (The X-Files)|Darkness Falls]]"


==References==
==References==
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* [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/naegleria/factsht_naegleria.htm Naegleria Infection fact sheet] from the website of the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/naegleria/factsht_naegleria.htm Naegleria Infection fact sheet] from the website of the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]


[[Category:Infectious Disease Project]]
[[Category:Percolozoa]]
[[Category:Percolozoa]]
[[Category:Water-borne diseases]]
[[Category:Water-borne diseases]]
[[Category:Parasites]]
[[Category:Parasites]]
[[it:Naegleria fowleri]]
[[ca:Naegleria fowleri]]
[[de:Naegleria fowleri]]
[[es:Naegleria fowleri]]
[[fr:Naegleria fowleri]]
[[ja:フォーラーネグレリア]]
[[pt:Naegleríase]]
[[ru:Naegleria fowleri]]
[[sv:Naegleria fowleri]]
[[tr:Naegleria fowleri]]
{{jb1}}
{{WH}}
{{WS}}

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This page is about microbiologic aspects of the organism(s).  For clinical aspects of the disease, see Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis.

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

Overview

Naegleria fowleri (also known as the brain eating amoeba) is a ubiquitous, free living amoeba typically grows contaminated, warm (25–35 °C / 77–95 °F), fresh water (e.g. lakes or hot springs). It belongs to a group called the Percolozoa or Heterolobosea. N. fowleri is transmitted to the humans through the nose when individuals swim/dive in lakes. Drinking contaminated water, however, does not result in transmission. N. fowleri causes primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), a rare disease whereby N. fowleri invades the human central nervous system through the cibriform plate and causes fulminant fatal meningoencephalitis in the majority of cases.[1][2]

Taxonomy

Biology

Shown below is an the life cycle of N. fowleri:

  • N. fowleri grows ideally at 42 °C (108 °F), but it can tolerate temperatures as high as 45 °C (113 °F).[3]
  • There are 3 morphological stages in the life cycle of Naegleria fowleri:[3]
  • Trophozoite: 10-30 mu - Infective stage characterized by the presence of contractile vacuoles. It reproduces by binary fission. It uses pseudopods structure to ingest other organisms, red blood cells, and white blood cells.
  • Flagellate: A temporary stage when the organism is exposed to changes in pH (e.g. from culture to distilled water).
  • Cyst: 7-14 μm - A resistant stage whereby the organism is protected by a dense cell wall that can tolerate harsh environments, such as cold weather or states of low nutrition. Cysts may be transmitted to the human host and transformed into trophozoites.

Structure

  • N. fowleri is a facultatively aerobic, heterotrophic organism.[4]
  • In its trophozoite form, it may appear either ameboid or flagellated.
  • It contains the following structures for survival and growth:
  • Mitochondria
  • Pseudopods
  • Flagella
  • Contractile vacuoles

Tropism

  • N. fowleri invades the central nervous system (highly oxygenated environment) and causes meningoencephalitis.[3]
  • N. fowleri is transmitted to humans via the nasal cavity into the cribriform plate.
  • It invades the subarachnoid spaces by migrating along the mesaxonal of unmyelinated olfactory nerves.
  • When it reaches the subarachnoid space, it may then disseminate to other tissues of the central nervous system.
  • It migrates along the mesaxonal spaces of unmyelinated

Natural Reservoir

  • The natural reservoir of N. fowleri are typically fresh water lakes and hot springs.
  • N. fowleri has also been isolated from:[4]
  • Soil
  • Swimming pools
  • Home showers
  • Sewers
  • Cooling towers

References

  1. ↑ "The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Parasitic Diseases - Naegleria Infection Fact Sheet". Retrieved 2007-10-09.
  2. ↑ "6 Die From Brain-Eating Amoeba in Lakes". Retrieved 2007-10-03.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 John DT (1982). "Primary amebic meningoencephalitis and the biology of Naegleria fowleri". Annu Rev Microbiol. 36: 101–23. doi:10.1146/annurev.mi.36.100182.000533. PMID 6756287.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Park JS, Simpson AG, Lee WJ, Cho BC (2007). "Ultrastructure and phylogenetic placement within Heterolobosea of the previously unclassified, extremely halophilic heterotrophic flagellate Pleurostomum flabellatum (Ruinen 1938)". Protist. 158 (3): 397–413. doi:10.1016/j.protis.2007.03.004. PMID 17576098.

External links

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