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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
== | Epiglottitis is a medical emergency and warrants immediate establishment of a patent airway. Once the airway has been secured, cultures of blood and epiglottic surface should be obtained before administration of [[antimicrobial]] therapy. Administering high-flow oxygen, establishing intravenous access, and calling the ENT specialist are standard first-line interventions for epiglottitis.<ref name="pmid159835742">{{cite journal| author=Nickas BJ| title=A 60-year-old man with stridor, drooling, and "tripoding" following a nasal polypectomy. | journal=J Emerg Nurs | year= 2005 | volume= 31 | issue= 3 | pages= 234-5; quiz 321 | pmid=15983574 | doi=10.1016/j.jen.2004.10.015 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15983574 }}</ref> An appropriate antibiotic regimen that covers ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'', [[hemolysis|beta-hemolytic]] [[streptococci]], and ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' includes [[parenteral]] [[Cefotaxime]] or [[Ceftriaxone]] in combination with [[Vancomycin]] (or [[Levofloxacin]] in combination with [[Clindamycin]] for [[Penicillin]]-allergic patients). Adjuvant therapy is commonly used in the management of stridor associated with acute epiglottitis. | ||
Adjuvant therapy includes [[corticosteroids]] and racemic [[Epinephrine]].<ref name="pmid15983574">{{cite journal| author=Nickas BJ| title=A 60-year-old man with stridor, drooling, and "tripoding" following a nasal polypectomy. | journal=J Emerg Nurs | year= 2005 | volume= 31 | issue= 3 | pages= 234-5; quiz 321 | pmid=15983574 | doi=10.1016/j.jen.2004.10.015 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15983574 }} </ref><ref name="pmid12557859">{{cite journal| author=Wick F, Ballmer PE, Haller A| title=Acute epiglottis in adults. | journal=Swiss Med Wkly | year= 2002 | volume= 132 | issue= 37-38 | pages= 541-7 | pmid=12557859 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12557859 }} </ref> | |||
==Principles of Therapy for Acute Epiglottitis== | |||
== | ===Antibiotic Therapy=== | ||
* In view of the emergence of ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'', [[hemolysis|beta-hemolytic]] [[streptococci]], and [[ampicillin]]-resistant ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]'' as the most common causative bacteria of acute epiglottitis, empiric therapy with a third-generation [[cephalosporin]] (such as [[cefotaxime]] and [[ceftriaxone]]) or [[ampicillin sulbactam|ampicillin-sulbactam]] is recommended.<ref name="pmid8436460">{{cite journal| author=Kessler A, Wetmore RF, Marsh RR| title=Childhood epiglottitis in recent years. | journal=Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol | year= 1993 | volume= 25 | issue= 1-3 | pages= 155-62 | pmid=8436460 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8436460 }} </ref> | |||
* An anti-[[Staphylococcus aureus|staphylococcal]] agent (such as [[vancomycin]] or [[clindamycin]]) should be added to the initial treatment in areas with increased [[prevalence]] of [[MRSA|methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA)]] or [[penicillin]]-resistant [[pneumococci]].<ref name="pmid17561078">{{cite journal| author=Alcaide ML, Bisno AL| title=Pharyngitis and epiglottitis. | journal=Infect Dis Clin North Am | year= 2007 | volume= 21 | issue= 2 | pages= 449-69, vii | pmid=17561078 | doi=10.1016/j.idc.2007.03.001 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17561078 }} </ref><ref name="pmid16522499">{{cite journal| author=Loftis L| title=Acute infectious upper airway obstructions in children. | journal=Semin Pediatr Infect Dis | year= 2006 | volume= 17 | issue= 1 | pages= 5-10 | pmid=16522499 | doi=10.1053/j.spid.2005.11.003 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16522499 }} </ref> | |||
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* The optimal duration of antimicrobial therapy is yet to be determined. Acute epiglottitis usually responds to a 7– to 10–day course of [[intravenous]] [[antibiotics]]. | |||
== | ===Adjuvant Therapy=== | ||
< | * Although adjuvant [[corticosteroids]] and racemic [[epinephrine]] are commonly used in the management of [[stridor]] associated with acute [[epiglottitis]], neither of them were proved effective in reducing the need of airway intervention or shortening the hospitalization.<ref name="pmid7933397">{{cite journal| author=Frantz TD, Rasgon BM, Quesenberry CP| title=Acute epiglottitis in adults. Analysis of 129 cases. | journal=JAMA | year= 1994 | volume= 272 | issue= 17 | pages= 1358-60 | pmid=7933397 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7933397 }} </ref><ref name="pmid15983574">{{cite journal| author=Nickas BJ| title=A 60-year-old man with stridor, drooling, and "tripoding" following a nasal polypectomy. | journal=J Emerg Nurs | year= 2005 | volume= 31 | issue= 3 | pages= 234-5; quiz 321 | pmid=15983574 | doi=10.1016/j.jen.2004.10.015 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15983574 }} </ref><ref name="pmid12557859">{{cite journal| author=Wick F, Ballmer PE, Haller A| title=Acute epiglottis in adults. | journal=Swiss Med Wkly | year= 2002 | volume= 132 | issue= 37-38 | pages= 541-7 | pmid=12557859 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12557859 }} </ref> | ||
===Antimicrobial Regimens=== | |||
*'''Epiglottitis'''<ref>{{cite book | last = Gilbert | first = David | title = The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy | publisher = Antimicrobial Therapy | location = Sperryville, Va | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1930808843 }}</ref> | |||
:*'''1. Empiric antimicrobial therapy''' | |||
::*'''1.1 Pediatrics''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen (1): [[Cefotaxime]] 50 mg/kg IV q8h | |||
:::*Preferred regimen (2): [[Ceftriaxone]] 50–75 mg/kg/day IV q12–24h {{and}} [[Vancomycin]] 10 mg/kg IV q6h | |||
:::*Alternate regimen (1): [[Levofloxacin]] 500 mg IV q24h (or 8 mg/kg IV q12h) {{and}} [[Clindamycin]] 20–40 mg/kg/day IV q6–8h | |||
::*'''1.2 Adults''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen (1): [[Cefotaxime]] 2 g IV q4–8h | |||
:::*Preferred regimen (2): [[Ceftriaxone]] 1–2 g/day IV q12–24h {{and}} [[Vancomycin]] 2 g/day IV q6–12h | |||
:::*Alternate regimen (1): [[Levofloxacin]] 750 mg IV q24h {{and}} [[Clindamycin]] 600–1200 mg IV q6–12h | |||
:*'''2. Pathogen-directed antimicrobial therapy''' | |||
::*'''2.1 Streptococcus pneumoniae''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: [[Penicillin G]] 2 MU IV q4h {{or}} [[Ceftriaxone]] 2 g IV q24h {{or}} [[Clindamycin]] 600 mg IV q6h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Moxifloxacin]] 400 mg IV q24h {{or}} [[Levofloxacin]] 750 mg IV q24h {{or}} [[Vancomycin]] 1 g IV q12h {{or}} [[Linezolid]] 600 mg IV q12h {{or}} [[Ceftaroline]] 600 mg IV q12h | |||
::*'''2.2 Streptococcus pyogenes''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: ([[Penicillin G]] 1.2 MU IV single dose {{then}} [[Penicillin VK]] 500 mg PO q12h) {{or}} [[Amoxicillin]] 500 mg PO q12h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Clindamycin]] 300 mg PO q8h {{or}} [[Azithromycin]] 500 mg PO q24h {{or}} [[Cephalexin]] 500 mg PO q12h | |||
::*'''2.3 Streptococcus agalactiae''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: [[Penicillin G]] 2 MU IV q4h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Vancomycin]] 20 mg/kg IV q8h {{or}} [[Clindamycin]] 600 mg IV q6h | |||
::*'''2.4 Streptococcus anginosus''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: [[Penicillin G]] 4 MU IV q4h {{or}} [[Ceftriaxone]] 2 g IV q24h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Vancomycin]] 1 g IV q12h {{or}} [[Clindamycin]] 600 mg IV q6h | |||
::*'''2.5 Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: [[Nafcillin]] 2 g IV q4-6h {{or}} [[Oxacillin]] 2 mg IV q4-6h {{or}} Cefazolin 2 g IV q8h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Dicloxacillin]] 500 mg PO q6h {{or}} [[Cephalexin]] 500 mg PO q6h {{or}} [[Clindamycin]] 300 mg PO q6h {{or}} [[Clindamycin]] 300 mg PO q8h {{or}} [[Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole]] 160/800 mg PO q12h | |||
::*'''2.6 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: [[Vancomycin]] 15-20 mg/kg IV q8-12h {{or}} [[Daptomycin]] 4-6 mg/kg IV q24h {{or}} [[Linezolid]] 600 mg IV q12h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Linezolid]] 600 mg/kg IV q12h {{or}} [[Daptomycin]] 4-6 mg/kg IV q24h {{or}} [[Ceftaroline]] 600 mg IV q8h | |||
::*'''2.7 Haemophilus influenzae''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: [[Ceftriaxone]] 2 g IV q12h {{or}} [[Cefotaxime]] 2 g IV q8h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Levofloxacin]] 750 mg IV q24h {{or}} [[Moxifloxacin]] 400 mg IV q8h | |||
::*'''2.8 Klebsiella pneumoniae''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: [[Ceftriaxone]] 2 g IV q12h {{or}} [[Cefotaxime]] 2 g IV q8h {{or}} [[Levofloxacin]] 750 mg IV q24h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Imipenem]] 500 mg IV q6h {{or}} [[Meropenem]] 1 g IV q8h {{or}} [[Ertapenem]] 1 g IV q24h | |||
::*'''2.9 Moraxella catarrhalis''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: [[Amoxicillin-clavulanate]] 850/125 mg PO q24h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: ([[Azithromycin]] 500 mg PO q24h first day {{then}} 250 mg PO q24h) {{or}} [[Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole]] 5 mg/kg IV q6—12h | |||
::*'''2.10 Neisseria meningitidis''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: [[Ceftriaxone]] 2 g IV q12h {{or}} [[Cefotaxime]] 2 g IV q6h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Penicillin G]] 4 MU IV q4h {{or}} [[Chloramphenicol]] 100 mg/kg/day q6h (maximum dose 4 g/day) | |||
::*'''2.11 Neisseria gonorrhoeae''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: [[Ceftriaxone]] 2 g IV q12h {{or}} [[Cefotaxime]] 2 g IV q6h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Penicillin G]] 4 MU IV q4h {{or}} [[Chloramphenicol]] 100 mg/kg/day q6h (maximum dose 4 g/day) | |||
::*'''2.12 Pasteurella multocida''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: [[Penicillin VK]] 500 mg PO q12h {{or}} [[Amoxicillin]] 500 mg PO q8h {{or}} [[Amoxicillin-clavulanate]] 850/125 mg PO q12h | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Cefuroxime]] 500 mg PO q12h {{or}} [[Levofloxacin]] 750 mg PO q24h {{or}} [[Moxifloxacin]] 400 mg PO q24h {{or}} [[Doxycycline]] 100 mg PO q12h | |||
::*'''2.13 Pseudomonas aeruginosa''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: ([[Ceftazidime]] 2 g IV q8h {{or}} [[Cefepime]] 2 g IV q8h) {{and}} ([[Levofloxacin]] 750 mg IV q24h {{or}} [[Moxifloxacin]] 400 mg PO q24h) | |||
::*'''2.14 Candida albicans''' | |||
:::*Preferred regimen: ([[Fluconazole]] 200 mg IV q24h for 14 days {{or}} [[Fluconazole]] 200 mg PO q24h for 14 days) {{and}} [[Nystatin]] oral suspension PO q6h for 14 days | |||
:::*Alternative regimen: [[Itraconazole]] solution 200 mg PO q24h for 14 days {{or}} ([[Amphotericin B]] 0.3 mg/kg PO q12h 3 days {{then}} q24h for 14 days) {{or}} [[Caspofungin]] PO q6h for 14 days | |||
==References== | |||
{{reflist|2}} | |||
{ | |||
{ | |||
[[Category:Bacterial diseases]] | |||
[[Category:Disease]] | |||
[[Category:Emergency medicine]] | |||
[[Category:Laryngology]] | [[Category:Laryngology]] | ||
[[Category:Medical emergencies]] | [[Category:Medical emergencies]] | ||
[[Category:Otolaryngology]] | [[Category:Otolaryngology]] | ||
[[Category:Pediatrics]] | [[Category:Pediatrics]] | ||
[[Category:Pulmonology]] | |||
[[Category:Up-To-Date]] | |||
[[Category:Infectious disease]] | [[Category:Infectious disease]] | ||
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Alonso Alvarado, M.D. [2] Prince Tano Djan, BSc, MBChB [3]
Overview
Epiglottitis is a medical emergency and warrants immediate establishment of a patent airway. Once the airway has been secured, cultures of blood and epiglottic surface should be obtained before administration of antimicrobial therapy. Administering high-flow oxygen, establishing intravenous access, and calling the ENT specialist are standard first-line interventions for epiglottitis.[1] An appropriate antibiotic regimen that covers Streptococcus pneumoniae, beta-hemolytic streptococci, and Staphylococcus aureus includes parenteral Cefotaxime or Ceftriaxone in combination with Vancomycin (or Levofloxacin in combination with Clindamycin for Penicillin-allergic patients). Adjuvant therapy is commonly used in the management of stridor associated with acute epiglottitis. Adjuvant therapy includes corticosteroids and racemic Epinephrine.[2][3]
Principles of Therapy for Acute Epiglottitis
Antibiotic Therapy
- In view of the emergence of Streptococcus pneumoniae, beta-hemolytic streptococci, and ampicillin-resistant Haemophilus influenzae as the most common causative bacteria of acute epiglottitis, empiric therapy with a third-generation cephalosporin (such as cefotaxime and ceftriaxone) or ampicillin-sulbactam is recommended.[4]
- An anti-staphylococcal agent (such as vancomycin or clindamycin) should be added to the initial treatment in areas with increased prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or penicillin-resistant pneumococci.[5][6]
- The optimal duration of antimicrobial therapy is yet to be determined. Acute epiglottitis usually responds to a 7– to 10–day course of intravenous antibiotics.
Adjuvant Therapy
- Although adjuvant corticosteroids and racemic epinephrine are commonly used in the management of stridor associated with acute epiglottitis, neither of them were proved effective in reducing the need of airway intervention or shortening the hospitalization.[7][2][3]
Antimicrobial Regimens
- Epiglottitis[8]
- 1. Empiric antimicrobial therapy
- 1.1 Pediatrics
- Preferred regimen (1): Cefotaxime 50 mg/kg IV q8h
- Preferred regimen (2): Ceftriaxone 50–75 mg/kg/day IV q12–24h AND Vancomycin 10 mg/kg IV q6h
- Alternate regimen (1): Levofloxacin 500 mg IV q24h (or 8 mg/kg IV q12h) AND Clindamycin 20–40 mg/kg/day IV q6–8h
- 1.2 Adults
- Preferred regimen (1): Cefotaxime 2 g IV q4–8h
- Preferred regimen (2): Ceftriaxone 1–2 g/day IV q12–24h AND Vancomycin 2 g/day IV q6–12h
- Alternate regimen (1): Levofloxacin 750 mg IV q24h AND Clindamycin 600–1200 mg IV q6–12h
- 2. Pathogen-directed antimicrobial therapy
- 2.1 Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Preferred regimen: Penicillin G 2 MU IV q4h OR Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q24h OR Clindamycin 600 mg IV q6h
- Alternative regimen: Moxifloxacin 400 mg IV q24h OR Levofloxacin 750 mg IV q24h OR Vancomycin 1 g IV q12h OR Linezolid 600 mg IV q12h OR Ceftaroline 600 mg IV q12h
- 2.2 Streptococcus pyogenes
- Preferred regimen: (Penicillin G 1.2 MU IV single dose THEN Penicillin VK 500 mg PO q12h) OR Amoxicillin 500 mg PO q12h
- Alternative regimen: Clindamycin 300 mg PO q8h OR Azithromycin 500 mg PO q24h OR Cephalexin 500 mg PO q12h
- 2.3 Streptococcus agalactiae
- Preferred regimen: Penicillin G 2 MU IV q4h
- Alternative regimen: Vancomycin 20 mg/kg IV q8h OR Clindamycin 600 mg IV q6h
- 2.4 Streptococcus anginosus
- Preferred regimen: Penicillin G 4 MU IV q4h OR Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q24h
- Alternative regimen: Vancomycin 1 g IV q12h OR Clindamycin 600 mg IV q6h
- 2.5 Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus
- Preferred regimen: Nafcillin 2 g IV q4-6h OR Oxacillin 2 mg IV q4-6h OR Cefazolin 2 g IV q8h
- Alternative regimen: Dicloxacillin 500 mg PO q6h OR Cephalexin 500 mg PO q6h OR Clindamycin 300 mg PO q6h OR Clindamycin 300 mg PO q8h OR Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole 160/800 mg PO q12h
- 2.6 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
- Preferred regimen: Vancomycin 15-20 mg/kg IV q8-12h OR Daptomycin 4-6 mg/kg IV q24h OR Linezolid 600 mg IV q12h
- Alternative regimen: Linezolid 600 mg/kg IV q12h OR Daptomycin 4-6 mg/kg IV q24h OR Ceftaroline 600 mg IV q8h
- 2.7 Haemophilus influenzae
- Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q12h OR Cefotaxime 2 g IV q8h
- Alternative regimen: Levofloxacin 750 mg IV q24h OR Moxifloxacin 400 mg IV q8h
- 2.8 Klebsiella pneumoniae
- Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q12h OR Cefotaxime 2 g IV q8h OR Levofloxacin 750 mg IV q24h
- Alternative regimen: Imipenem 500 mg IV q6h OR Meropenem 1 g IV q8h OR Ertapenem 1 g IV q24h
- 2.9 Moraxella catarrhalis
- Preferred regimen: Amoxicillin-clavulanate 850/125 mg PO q24h
- Alternative regimen: (Azithromycin 500 mg PO q24h first day THEN 250 mg PO q24h) OR Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole 5 mg/kg IV q6—12h
- 2.10 Neisseria meningitidis
- Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q12h OR Cefotaxime 2 g IV q6h
- Alternative regimen: Penicillin G 4 MU IV q4h OR Chloramphenicol 100 mg/kg/day q6h (maximum dose 4 g/day)
- 2.11 Neisseria gonorrhoeae
- Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q12h OR Cefotaxime 2 g IV q6h
- Alternative regimen: Penicillin G 4 MU IV q4h OR Chloramphenicol 100 mg/kg/day q6h (maximum dose 4 g/day)
- 2.12 Pasteurella multocida
- Preferred regimen: Penicillin VK 500 mg PO q12h OR Amoxicillin 500 mg PO q8h OR Amoxicillin-clavulanate 850/125 mg PO q12h
- Alternative regimen: Cefuroxime 500 mg PO q12h OR Levofloxacin 750 mg PO q24h OR Moxifloxacin 400 mg PO q24h OR Doxycycline 100 mg PO q12h
- 2.13 Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Preferred regimen: (Ceftazidime 2 g IV q8h OR Cefepime 2 g IV q8h) AND (Levofloxacin 750 mg IV q24h OR Moxifloxacin 400 mg PO q24h)
- 2.14 Candida albicans
- Preferred regimen: (Fluconazole 200 mg IV q24h for 14 days OR Fluconazole 200 mg PO q24h for 14 days) AND Nystatin oral suspension PO q6h for 14 days
- Alternative regimen: Itraconazole solution 200 mg PO q24h for 14 days OR (Amphotericin B 0.3 mg/kg PO q12h 3 days THEN q24h for 14 days) OR Caspofungin PO q6h for 14 days
References
- ↑ Nickas BJ (2005). "A 60-year-old man with stridor, drooling, and "tripoding" following a nasal polypectomy". J Emerg Nurs. 31 (3): 234–5, quiz 321. doi:10.1016/j.jen.2004.10.015. PMID 15983574.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Nickas BJ (2005). "A 60-year-old man with stridor, drooling, and "tripoding" following a nasal polypectomy". J Emerg Nurs. 31 (3): 234–5, quiz 321. doi:10.1016/j.jen.2004.10.015. PMID 15983574.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Wick F, Ballmer PE, Haller A (2002). "Acute epiglottis in adults". Swiss Med Wkly. 132 (37–38): 541–7. PMID 12557859.
- ↑ Kessler A, Wetmore RF, Marsh RR (1993). "Childhood epiglottitis in recent years". Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 25 (1–3): 155–62. PMID 8436460.
- ↑ Alcaide ML, Bisno AL (2007). "Pharyngitis and epiglottitis". Infect Dis Clin North Am. 21 (2): 449–69, vii. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2007.03.001. PMID 17561078.
- ↑ Loftis L (2006). "Acute infectious upper airway obstructions in children". Semin Pediatr Infect Dis. 17 (1): 5–10. doi:10.1053/j.spid.2005.11.003. PMID 16522499.
- ↑ Frantz TD, Rasgon BM, Quesenberry CP (1994). "Acute epiglottitis in adults. Analysis of 129 cases". JAMA. 272 (17): 1358–60. PMID 7933397.
- ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.