Lassa fever pathophysiology: Difference between revisions
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===Pathology=== | ===Pathology=== | ||
====Molecular Pathology==== | ====Molecular Pathology==== | ||
* Lassa virus infect the cells especially endothelial cells and release cytokines and other inflammatory cell mediators. | * Lassa virus infect the cells especially endothelial cells and release cytokines and other inflammatory cell mediators.<ref name="pmid23202452">{{cite journal| author=Yun NE, Walker DH| title=Pathogenesis of Lassa fever. | journal=Viruses | year= 2012 | volume= 4 | issue= 10 | pages= 2031-48 | pmid=23202452 | doi=10.3390/v4102031 | pmc=PMC3497040 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23202452 }} </ref> | ||
* The mediators cause [[platelet]] dysfunction and suppress [[cardiac function]] as well as produce clinical manifestation of [[shock]] and [[inflammation]]. | * The mediators cause [[platelet]] dysfunction and suppress [[cardiac function]] as well as produce clinical manifestation of [[shock]] and [[inflammation]]. | ||
* Microscopically, the [[virus]] causes [[hepatocellular necrosis]] and capillary lesions that can cause certain [[organs]] to [[hemorrhage]]. Lassa virus travels through the [[body]] via the [[blood]], [[lymph vessels]], [[respiratory tract]], and [[digestive tract]]. Because of the multitude of dissemination strategies in the [[body]], it is able to [[infect]] almost every [[organ]] in the human [[body]]. It has even been found in the [[cerebrospinal fluid]] which suggests a [[malfunction]] or defect of the [[blood brain barrier]]. Even though the [[virus]] targets the entire [[body]], the [[liver]] is usually the [[organ]] that is most affected. The [[virus]] escapes detection by suppressing the [[immune system]]. | * Microscopically, the [[virus]] causes [[hepatocellular necrosis]] and capillary lesions that can cause certain [[organs]] to [[hemorrhage]]. Lassa virus travels through the [[body]] via the [[blood]], [[lymph vessels]], [[respiratory tract]], and [[digestive tract]]. Because of the multitude of dissemination strategies in the [[body]], it is able to [[infect]] almost every [[organ]] in the human [[body]]. It has even been found in the [[cerebrospinal fluid]] which suggests a [[malfunction]] or defect of the [[blood brain barrier]]. Even though the [[virus]] targets the entire [[body]], the [[liver]] is usually the [[organ]] that is most affected. The [[virus]] escapes detection by suppressing the [[immune system]]. | ||
* Patients infected with LASV produce IgM and IgG antibody isotypes.<ref name="pmid3805773">{{cite journal| author=Johnson KM, McCormick JB, Webb PA, Smith ES, Elliott LH, King IJ| title=Clinical virology of Lassa fever in hospitalized patients. | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 1987 | volume= 155 | issue= 3 | pages= 456-64 | pmid=3805773 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3805773 }} </ref>. | * Patients infected with LASV produce IgM and IgG antibody isotypes.<ref name="pmid3805773">{{cite journal| author=Johnson KM, McCormick JB, Webb PA, Smith ES, Elliott LH, King IJ| title=Clinical virology of Lassa fever in hospitalized patients. | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 1987 | volume= 155 | issue= 3 | pages= 456-64 | pmid=3805773 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3805773 }} </ref>. | ||
* Microscopic findings include [[hepatocellular necrosis]] and [[apoptosis]], [[splenic necrosis]], [[adrenocortical necrosis]], mild mononuclear [[interstitial myocarditis]] without myocardial fiber [[necrosis]], [[alveolar edema]] with capillary congestion and mild [[interstitial pneumonitis]], lymph nodal sinus [[histiocytosis]] with [[mitoses]], gastrointestinal mucosal [[petechiae]], [[renal tubular injury]], and [[interstitial nephritis]]. | * Microscopic findings include [[hepatocellular necrosis]] and [[apoptosis]], [[splenic necrosis]], [[adrenocortical necrosis]], mild mononuclear [[interstitial myocarditis]] without myocardial fiber [[necrosis]], [[alveolar edema]] with capillary congestion and mild [[interstitial pneumonitis]], lymph nodal sinus [[histiocytosis]] with [[mitoses]], gastrointestinal mucosal [[petechiae]], [[renal tubular injury]], and [[interstitial nephritis]].<ref name="pmid4246571">{{cite journal| author=Frame JD, Baldwin JM, Gocke DJ, Troup JM| title=Lassa fever, a new virus disease of man from West Africa. I. Clinical description and pathological findings. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 1970 | volume= 19 | issue= 4 | pages= 670-6 | pmid=4246571 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4246571 }} </ref><ref name="pmid7081389">{{cite journal| author=Walker DH, McCormick JB, Johnson KM, Webb PA, Komba-Kono G, Elliott LH et al.| title=Pathologic and virologic study of fatal Lassa fever in man. | journal=Am J Pathol | year= 1982 | volume= 107 | issue= 3 | pages= 349-56 | pmid=7081389 | doi= | pmc=PMC1916239 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7081389 }} </ref>ref name="pmid3953952">{{cite journal| author=McCormick JB, Walker DH, King IJ, Webb PA, Elliott LH, Whitfield SG et al.| title=Lassa virus hepatitis: a study of fatal Lassa fever in humans. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 1986 | volume= 35 | issue= 2 | pages= 401-7 | pmid=3953952 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3953952 }} </ref> | ||
* The necrotic [[hepatocytes]] were randomly distributed often forming foci of contiguous [[cells]]. Mononuclear [[phagocytes]] were observed either contacting or phagocytosing necrotic [[hepatocytes]]. | |||
* [[Splenic necrosis]] was found in the marginal zone of the [[periarteriolar lymphocytic sheath]]. [[Splenic venous subendothelium]] appeared to be infiltrated by [[lymphocytes]] and other [[mononuclear cells]]. | |||
* The [[Lassa virus]] is diagnosed several ways including the discovery of the [[viral antigen]], [[antibodies]], or [[virus culture]]. One way to detect the virus antigen is to use the virus’s [[antibodies]] in [[enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays]] ([[ELISA]]s). The virus can also be revealed though indirect [[immunoflourescence]] which detects the virus [[antibodies]] [[IgM]] and [[IgG]]. Lastly, the [[virus]] can be uncovered using reverse transcription PCR after first reverse transcribing the [[RNA]] of the [[virus]] into [[DNA]]. | * The [[Lassa virus]] is diagnosed several ways including the discovery of the [[viral antigen]], [[antibodies]], or [[virus culture]]. One way to detect the virus antigen is to use the virus’s [[antibodies]] in [[enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays]] ([[ELISA]]s). The virus can also be revealed though indirect [[immunoflourescence]] which detects the virus [[antibodies]] [[IgM]] and [[IgG]]. Lastly, the [[virus]] can be uncovered using reverse transcription PCR after first reverse transcribing the [[RNA]] of the [[virus]] into [[DNA]]. | ||
* While, at present, there is no vaccine for Lassa virus, the broad-spectrum nucleoside analogue ribaviran has been demonstrated to have therapeutic effect on patients suffering from Lassa fever. [[Ribaviran]] works by mutating the progeny genomes of the virus by incorporating itself into the virus’s RNA. While this method has been proven to reduce mortality, it is most successful if it is given within 6-7 days of the start of symptoms. Ribaviran by itself is not enough, the patient also needs rigorous care in the hospital setting. Someone suffering from Lassa virus needs to have their fluids and electrolytes kept in balance, they require the proper amount of oxygen, their blood pressure needs to be monitored, and they need prompt treatment for any complications that may arise. | * While, at present, there is no vaccine for Lassa virus, the broad-spectrum nucleoside analogue ribaviran has been demonstrated to have therapeutic effect on patients suffering from Lassa fever. [[Ribaviran]] works by mutating the progeny genomes of the virus by incorporating itself into the virus’s RNA. While this method has been proven to reduce mortality, it is most successful if it is given within 6-7 days of the start of symptoms. Ribaviran by itself is not enough, the patient also needs rigorous care in the hospital setting. Someone suffering from Lassa virus needs to have their fluids and electrolytes kept in balance, they require the proper amount of oxygen, their blood pressure needs to be monitored, and they need prompt treatment for any complications that may arise. | ||
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [2]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Ammu Susheela, M.D. [3]
Synonyms and keywords: Lassa hemorrhagic fever; LHF
Overview
Lassa fever is a zoonotic disease caused by Lassa virus and spread by multimammate rat vector. It is spread through person-to-person contact, direct contact with rodent excretion and after an incubation period of 1-24 days can manifest as fever, muscle aches, sore throat, nausea, vomiting, chest and abdominal pain, weakness, cough, headache, exudative pharyngitis, anemia, low blood pressure, and diarrhea.
Pathophysiology
Pathogenesis
- Lassa virus infects the endothelial cells and perturbation of vascular function is likely to be central to Lassa fever-associated pathobiology, since the signs of increased vascular permeability, such as facial edema and pleural and pericardial effusions, indicate a poor prognosis for the disease outcome.
- Failure to develop the cellular immune response that would control dissemination of LASV, which is indicated by high serum virus titers, combined with disseminated replication in tissues and absence of neutralizing antibodies, leads to the development of fatal Lassa fever.[1]
- Some of the characteristic symptoms of the virus include: fever, muscle aches, sore throat, nausea, vomiting, chest and abdominal pain, weakness, cough, headache, exudative pharyngitis, anemia, low blood pressure, and diarrhea. Because its symptoms are similar to other febrile illness found in Africa, Lassa virus is hard to diagnose. It can eventually can cause pulmonary edema, pleural and pericardial effusion, facial edema, bleeding from mucosal surfaces, neurological complications, deafness, lymphocytopenia, thrombocytopenia, and ascites. Often sore throat, vomiting, and bleeding are associated with higher fatality. There are four clinical stages of Lassa fever. The first stages occurs within the first three days and its symptoms include a high fever, weakness, and a general depression in activity. The second stage transpires from day 4 to day 7 where the patient experiences some of the more common/characteristic symptoms as stated above. The third stage begins at the seventh day and includes more severe symptoms such as: facial edema, convulsions, mucosal bleeding, internal bleeding, and disorientation. The fourth stage usually occurs after the 14th day and ends in coma and death.
- Only 20% of people who contract Lassa fever have severe multisystem trauma, meaning that 80% of people have only the milder symptoms. It has also been found that most cases of Lassa fever occur as the seasons change from dry to wet.
Transmission
Rodent to Human
- Infection in humans typically occurs via exposure to animal excrement through the respiratory or gastrointestinal tracts.
- Inhalation of tiny particles of infective material (aerosol) is believed to be the most significant means of exposure.
- It is possible to acquire the infection through broken skin or mucous membranes that are directly exposed to infective material. In fatal cases, Lassa fever is characterized by impaired or delayed cellular immunity leading to fulminant viremia[2].
- Finally, because Mastomys rodents are sometimes consumed as a food source, infection may occur via direct contact when they are caught and prepared for food.
Human to Human
- There are a number of ways in which the virus may be transmitted, or spread, to humans.
- This type of transmission occurs when a person comes into contact with virus in the blood, tissue, secretions, or excretions of an individual infected with the Lassa virus.
- The virus cannot be spread through casual contact (including skin-to-skin contact without exchange of body fluids).
- Person-to-person transmission is common in both village and health care settings, where, along with the above-mentioned modes of transmission, the virus also may be spread in contaminated medical equipment, such as reused needles (this is called nosocomial transmission). Frequency of transmission via sexual contact has not been established. * Transmission through breast milk has also been observed.
Pathology
Molecular Pathology
- Lassa virus infect the cells especially endothelial cells and release cytokines and other inflammatory cell mediators.[3]
- The mediators cause platelet dysfunction and suppress cardiac function as well as produce clinical manifestation of shock and inflammation.
- Microscopically, the virus causes hepatocellular necrosis and capillary lesions that can cause certain organs to hemorrhage. Lassa virus travels through the body via the blood, lymph vessels, respiratory tract, and digestive tract. Because of the multitude of dissemination strategies in the body, it is able to infect almost every organ in the human body. It has even been found in the cerebrospinal fluid which suggests a malfunction or defect of the blood brain barrier. Even though the virus targets the entire body, the liver is usually the organ that is most affected. The virus escapes detection by suppressing the immune system.
- Patients infected with LASV produce IgM and IgG antibody isotypes.[4].
- Microscopic findings include hepatocellular necrosis and apoptosis, splenic necrosis, adrenocortical necrosis, mild mononuclear interstitial myocarditis without myocardial fiber necrosis, alveolar edema with capillary congestion and mild interstitial pneumonitis, lymph nodal sinus histiocytosis with mitoses, gastrointestinal mucosal petechiae, renal tubular injury, and interstitial nephritis.[5][6]ref name="pmid3953952">McCormick JB, Walker DH, King IJ, Webb PA, Elliott LH, Whitfield SG; et al. (1986). "Lassa virus hepatitis: a study of fatal Lassa fever in humans". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 35 (2): 401–7. PMID 3953952. </ref>
- The necrotic hepatocytes were randomly distributed often forming foci of contiguous cells. Mononuclear phagocytes were observed either contacting or phagocytosing necrotic hepatocytes.
- Splenic necrosis was found in the marginal zone of the periarteriolar lymphocytic sheath. Splenic venous subendothelium appeared to be infiltrated by lymphocytes and other mononuclear cells.
- The Lassa virus is diagnosed several ways including the discovery of the viral antigen, antibodies, or virus culture. One way to detect the virus antigen is to use the virus’s antibodies in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). The virus can also be revealed though indirect immunoflourescence which detects the virus antibodies IgM and IgG. Lastly, the virus can be uncovered using reverse transcription PCR after first reverse transcribing the RNA of the virus into DNA.
- While, at present, there is no vaccine for Lassa virus, the broad-spectrum nucleoside analogue ribaviran has been demonstrated to have therapeutic effect on patients suffering from Lassa fever. Ribaviran works by mutating the progeny genomes of the virus by incorporating itself into the virus’s RNA. While this method has been proven to reduce mortality, it is most successful if it is given within 6-7 days of the start of symptoms. Ribaviran by itself is not enough, the patient also needs rigorous care in the hospital setting. Someone suffering from Lassa virus needs to have their fluids and electrolytes kept in balance, they require the proper amount of oxygen, their blood pressure needs to be monitored, and they need prompt treatment for any complications that may arise.
References
- ↑ Flatz L, Rieger T, Merkler D, Bergthaler A, Regen T, Schedensack M; et al. (2010). "T cell-dependence of Lassa fever pathogenesis". PLoS Pathog. 6 (3): e1000836. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000836. PMC 2847900. PMID 20360949.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 "wikipedia".
- ↑ Yun NE, Walker DH (2012). "Pathogenesis of Lassa fever". Viruses. 4 (10): 2031–48. doi:10.3390/v4102031. PMC 3497040. PMID 23202452.
- ↑ Johnson KM, McCormick JB, Webb PA, Smith ES, Elliott LH, King IJ (1987). "Clinical virology of Lassa fever in hospitalized patients". J Infect Dis. 155 (3): 456–64. PMID 3805773.
- ↑ Frame JD, Baldwin JM, Gocke DJ, Troup JM (1970). "Lassa fever, a new virus disease of man from West Africa. I. Clinical description and pathological findings". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 19 (4): 670–6. PMID 4246571.
- ↑ Walker DH, McCormick JB, Johnson KM, Webb PA, Komba-Kono G, Elliott LH; et al. (1982). "Pathologic and virologic study of fatal Lassa fever in man". Am J Pathol. 107 (3): 349–56. PMC 1916239. PMID 7081389.