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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Aysha Anwar, M.B.B.S[2]
Overview
Effective measures for the primary prevention of typhoid fever include vaccination which includes inactivated typhoid vaccine, ViCPS(IM)and live typhoid vaccine (oral).[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][6] Other measures which help prevent typhoid fever include improving personal hygiene and sanitation,[9] proper sewage disposal, avoiding overcrowding, avoiding close contact or sharing utensils with people already suffering from typhoid.
Primary Prevention
Effective measures for the primary prevention of typhoid fever include the following:
Vaccination
There are two types of vaccines for typhoid fever:[1][3][4][5][8][6][10]
- Inactivated typhoid vaccine, ViCPS(IM)
- Live typhoid vaccine (oral)
Indications
- Travelers visiting endemic areas.[11][12]
- Health care workers dealing typhoid patients or handling salmonella typhi.
- Individuals at increased risk of acquiring infection such as household contacts of patient having typhoid fever.[13][14]
- To prevent typhoid epidemic in case of natural disasters and refugee camps in endemic areas.[5][15]
Contraindications
Following are the contraindications for typhoid vaccine:[5][16]
- Severe allergic reaction to the vaccine component.
- Severely ill patients or immunocompromised individuals.
- Severe reaction to previous dose.
- Children younger than 2 years of age for inactivated vaccine.
- Children younger than six years of age for live attenuated vaccine.
- Pregnancy.[17]
The table below provides the basic information on typhoid vaccines that are available in the United States:
Other measures
Following measures in endemic areas help decrease incidence of typhoid in these areas.[5]
- Improving personal hygiene and sanitation.[18]
- Proper sewage disposal.
- Avoiding overcrowding.
- Avoiding close contact or sharing utensils with people already suffering from typhoid.
Following preventive measures can help prevent disease in people traveling to endemic area:[5][19][20]
- Avoiding foods and beverages from street vendors.
- Avoiding raw fruits and vegetables that cannot be peeled.
- Avoiding consumption of ice cream.
- Eating food which is properly cooked and served hot.
- Using hard cooked eggs.
- Using pasteurized milk products.
- Using boiled or bottled water.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G (1975). "Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes". Biochem Pharmacol. 24 (17): 1639–41. PMID http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.316.7125.110 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Wahdan, M. H., et al. "A controlled field trial of live Salmonella typhi strain Ty 21a oral vaccine against typhoid: three-year results." Journal of Infectious Diseases 145.3 (1982): 292-295.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Acharya IL, Lowe CU, Thapa R, Gurubacharya VL, Shrestha MB, Cadoz M; et al. (1987). "Prevention of typhoid fever in Nepal with the Vi capsular polysaccharide of Salmonella typhi. A preliminary report". N Engl J Med. 317 (18): 1101–4. doi:10.1056/NEJM198710293171801. PMID 3657877.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Lin FY, Ho VA, Khiem HB, Trach DD, Bay PV, Thanh TC; et al. (2001). "The efficacy of a Salmonella typhi Vi conjugate vaccine in two-to-five-year-old children". N Engl J Med. 344 (17): 1263–9. doi:10.1056/NEJM200104263441701. PMID 11320385.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Parry CM, Hien TT, Dougan G, White NJ, Farrar JJ (2002). "Typhoid fever". N Engl J Med. 347 (22): 1770–82. doi:10.1056/NEJMra020201. PMID 12456854.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 MacFadden DR, Bogoch II, Andrews JR (2016). "Advances in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of invasive Salmonella infections". Curr Opin Infect Dis. doi:10.1097/QCO.0000000000000302. PMID 27479027.
- ↑ http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/diseases/typhoid
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Hainsworth T (2002). "Travel vaccines: a guide to appropriate use". Nurs Times. 98 (25): 40–2. PMID 12168224.
- ↑ Ivanoff, Bernard. "Typhoid fever: global situation and WHO recommendations." Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 26 (1995): 1-6.
- ↑ Wahdan, M. H., et al. "A controlled field trial of live Salmonella typhi strain Ty 21a oral vaccine against typhoid: three-year results." Journal of Infectious Diseases 145.3 (1982): 292-295.
- ↑ John TJ (1995). "Typhoid vaccine". Indian Pediatr. 32 (3): 391–3. PMID 8613306.
- ↑ http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/vis/vis-statements/typhoid.html
- ↑ Jackson BR, Iqbal S, Mahon B, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2015). "Updated recommendations for the use of typhoid vaccine--Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, United States, 2015". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 64 (11): 305–8. PMID 25811680.
- ↑ Steinberg EB, Bishop R, Haber P, Dempsey AF, Hoekstra RM, Nelson JM; et al. (2004). "Typhoid fever in travelers: who should be targeted for prevention?". Clin Infect Dis. 39 (2): 186–91. doi:10.1086/421945. PMID 15307027.
- ↑ Tarr PE, Kuppens L, Jones TC, Ivanoff B, Aparin PG, Heymann DL (1999). "Considerations regarding mass vaccination against typhoid fever as an adjunct to sanitation and public health measures: potential use in an epidemic in Tajikistan". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 61 (1): 163–70. PMID 10432074.
- ↑ http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/vis/vis-statements/typhoid.html
- ↑ Galev A, Nacheva A (2014). "[Pregnancy and vaccinoprevention]". Akush Ginekol (Sofiia). 53 (1): 51–6. PMID 24919344.
- ↑ Ivanoff, Bernard. "Typhoid fever: global situation and WHO recommendations." Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 26 (1995): 1-6.
- ↑ http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/diseases/typhoid
- ↑ Ahmad Hatib NA, Chong CY, Thoon KC, Tee NW, Krishnamoorthy SS, Tan NW (2016). "Enteric Fever in a Tertiary Paediatric Hospital: A Retrospective Six-Year Review". Ann Acad Med Singapore. 45 (7): 297–302. PMID 27523510.