Rhinitis overview: Difference between revisions
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==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis== | ==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis== | ||
Allergic rhinitis rarely occurs in isolation, it is a product of a genetic predisposition, epigenetic events, and environmental exposures, and it is frequently associated with other forms of atopy such as eczema, asthma, and allergic eye disease(allergic rhinoconjunctivitis).<ref name="pmid27490123">{{cite journal| author=Shaker M, Salcone E| title=An update on ocular allergy. | journal=Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 2016 | volume= 16 | issue= 5 | pages= 505-10 | pmid=27490123 | doi=10.1097/ACI.0000000000000299 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27490123 }} </ref><ref name="pmid16634358">{{cite journal| author=Sacre Hazouri JA| title=[Allergic rhinitis. Coexistent diseases and complications. A review and analysis]. | journal=Rev Alerg Mex | year= 2006 | volume= 53 | issue= 1 | pages= 9-29 | pmid=16634358 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16634358 }} </ref><ref name="pmid25182349">{{cite journal| author=Mims JW| title=Epidemiology of allergic rhinitis. | journal=Int Forum Allergy Rhinol | year= 2014 | volume= 4 Suppl 2 | issue= | pages= S18-20 | pmid=25182349 | doi=10.1002/alr.21385 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25182349 }} </ref> The vast majority of individuals with asthma have rhinitis, and allergic eye disease has been reported to affect almost all patients with allergic rhinitis.<ref name="pmid27490123">{{cite journal| author=Shaker M, Salcone E| title=An update on ocular allergy. | journal=Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 2016 | volume= 16 | issue= 5 | pages= 505-10 | pmid=27490123 | doi=10.1097/ACI.0000000000000299 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27490123 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18331513">{{cite journal| author=Bousquet J, Khaltaev N, Cruz AA, Denburg J, Fokkens WJ, Togias A et al.| title=Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma (ARIA) 2008 update (in collaboration with the World Health Organization, GA(2)LEN and AllerGen). | journal=Allergy | year= 2008 | volume= 63 Suppl 86 | issue= | pages= 8-160 | pmid=18331513 | doi=10.1111/j.1398-9995.2007.01620.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18331513 }} </ref> Nonallergic rhinitis is also associated with asthma.<ref name="pmid22056609">{{cite journal| author=Westman M, Stjärne P, Asarnoj A, Kull I, van Hage M, Wickman M et al.| title=Natural course and comorbidities of allergic and nonallergic rhinitis in children. | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 2012 | volume= 129 | issue= 2 | pages= 403-8 | pmid=22056609 | doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2011.09.036 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22056609 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18331513">{{cite journal| author=Bousquet J, Khaltaev N, Cruz AA, Denburg J, Fokkens WJ, Togias A et al.| title=Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma (ARIA) 2008 update (in collaboration with the World Health Organization, GA(2)LEN and AllerGen). | journal=Allergy | year= 2008 | volume= 63 Suppl 86 | issue= | pages= 8-160 | pmid=18331513 | doi=10.1111/j.1398-9995.2007.01620.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18331513 }} </ref> Frequent extension of rhinitis (especially infectious rhinitis) into the sinuses also occur, resulting in [[rhinosinusitis]].<ref name="pmid20176255">{{cite journal| author=Dykewicz MS, Hamilos DL| title=Rhinitis and sinusitis. | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 2010 | volume= 125 | issue= 2 Suppl 2 | pages= S103-15 | pmid=20176255 | doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2009.12.989 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20176255 }} </ref><ref name= "Diseases of the Sinuses"></ref> Children with nonallergic rhinitis have a higher likelihood of undergoing remission, compared with those with allergic rhinitis, who tend to have a more persistent disease.<ref name="pmid22056609">{{cite journal| author=Westman M, Stjärne P, Asarnoj A, Kull I, van Hage M, Wickman M et al.| title=Natural course and comorbidities of allergic and nonallergic rhinitis in children. | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 2012 | volume= 129 | issue= 2 | pages= 403-8 | pmid=22056609 | doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2011.09.036 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22056609 }} </ref> Remission occurs in up to 73% of four year old children with nonallergic rhinitis by the age of eight years.<ref name="pmid22056609">{{cite journal| author=Westman M, Stjärne P, Asarnoj A, Kull I, van Hage M, Wickman M et al.| title=Natural course and comorbidities of allergic and nonallergic rhinitis in children. | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 2012 | volume= 129 | issue= 2 | pages= 403-8 | pmid=22056609 | doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2011.09.036 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22056609 }} </ref> Rhinitis is a significant cause of lost school and work days, and it constitutes a huge financial burden to the society.<ref name="pmid15025839">{{cite journal| author=Schoenwetter WF, Dupclay L, Appajosyula S, Botteman MF, Pashos CL| title=Economic impact and quality-of-life burden of allergic rhinitis. | journal=Curr Med Res Opin | year= 2004 | volume= 20 | issue= 3 | pages= 305-17 | pmid=15025839 | doi=10.1185/030079903125003053 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15025839 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18662584">{{cite journal| author=Wallace DV, Dykewicz MS, Bernstein DI, Blessing-Moore J, Cox L, Khan DA et al.| title=The diagnosis and management of rhinitis: an updated practice parameter. | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 122 | issue= 2 Suppl | pages= S1-84 | pmid=18662584 | doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2008.06.003 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18662584 }} </ref> Untreated/poorly treated chronic rhinitis is associated with a diminished quality of life, disordered sleep, impaired work performance, and several other comorbidities.<ref name="Diseases of the Sinuses"></ref><ref name="pmid16634358">{{cite journal| author=Sacre Hazouri JA| title=[Allergic rhinitis. Coexistent diseases and complications. A review and analysis]. | journal=Rev Alerg Mex | year= 2006 | volume= 53 | issue= 1 | pages= 9-29 | pmid=16634358 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16634358 }} </ref> | |||
==History and Symptoms== | ==History and Symptoms== | ||
==Physical Examination== | ==Physical Examination== | ||
Revision as of 01:31, 26 January 2017
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Rhinitis overview On the Web |
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Fatimo Biobaku M.B.B.S [2]
Overview
Rhinitis is a heterogenous disorder that is often treated with triviality. It is a highly prevalent disease that can have significant impact on the quality of life of affected individuals. It has a huge financial impact on the society, and generates between $1.6-$4.9 billion in direct expenditure in the US. The estimate of indirect cost from lost productivity in the US ranges between $0.1-$9.7 billion dollars. Chronic rhinitis is one of the most common problems seen by physicians, and allergic rhinitis is the most common type of chronic rhinitis. The prevalence of allergic rhinitis has been steadily increasing in various countries across the world. Unfortunately, rhinitis is often overlooked, underdiagnosed, undertreated, and mistreated. An understanding of the etiology of the different types of rhinitis, and the treatment modalities would improve the quality of care offered to patients, and ultimately improve the quality of life of those who suffer from chronic rhinitis.
Historical Perspective
Rhinitis has been in existence since the ancient times. Seasonal allergic rhinitis (hay fever) evolved with the industrialization of westernized countries in the 19th century, and it was a common condition in Europe and North America by the end of the 19th century. Nonallergic Rhinitis with Eosinophilic Syndrome(NARES) was first described in 1981 by Jacobs et al.[3] Primary atrophic rhinitis has been well known for ages to the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Indians, and it was first described by Bernhard Fraenkel in 1876.
Classification
Rhinitis can be broadly classified into allergic and nonallergic rhinitis.[1] Some forms of rhinitis are not easily classified as either allergic or nonallergic,[1] and sometimes, there also appear to be an overlap of both allergic and nonallergic rhinitis (sometimes referred to as 'mixed' rhinitis).[2] The classification and diagnosis of nonallergic rhinitis is challenging due to its diverse etiology, and it is also not well understood compared to the allergic type.[3]
Pathophysiology
Rhinitis refers to a heterogeneous group of nasal disorders characterized by the presence of one or more nasal symptoms such as sneezing, nasal itching, rhinorrhea(anterior and posterior), and nasal congestion.[4] It is broadly classified into allergic and nonallergic rhinitis, although some forms of rhinitis cannot be easily classified into these categories.[2] Allergic rhinitis is a multifactorial disease, its development is influenced by an interplay of genetic and environmental factors.[5] Aeroallergens in the nasal tissue undergo antigen processing, eliciting allergen-specific allergic responses and also promoting the development of allergic airway disease.[6][7] Proteins and glycoproteins in indoor and outdoor inhalant allergens such as dust mite fecal particles, cockroach residues, animal danders, molds, and pollens are common aeroallergens causing allergic rhinitis.[6][7] Allergic rhinitis is usually an IgE mediated disease with varying degrees of nasal inflammation. Nonallergic rhinitis is a heterogenous group with poorly defined and understood pathophysiology, and it consists of a variety of conditions which require more research and phenotyping.[8]
Causes
One of the most common diseases presenting to physicians is chronic rhinitis, and determination of the etiology is crucial to ensure appropriate management.[2] Allergic rhinitis is the most common type of chronic rhinitis,[4][9] and it is the fifth most common chronic ailment overall in the U.S.[9] Allergic rhinitis is triggered by the inhalation of indoor and outdoor aeroallergens such as pollens, molds, and animal dander.[10][7] Nonallergic rhinitis comprises of a heterogenous group of disorders, some of which are still poorly defined and understood.[11] Nonallergic rhinitis can be induced by non-specific triggers such as exposure to chemical odors, cigarette smoke, spicy food, exercise, and cold air.[3]
Differentiating Rhinitis from other Diseases
Rhinitis is often frequently overlooked or undertreated.[12] It is associated with several comorbidities which can have significant impact on the quality of life. It can also be the initial presentation of overt systemic illnesses which can be potentially fatal.[13] It is important to differentiate rhinitis from other conditions micmicking the symptoms of rhinitis such as intranasal foreign bodies, cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea, nasal polyps and tumors.
Epidemiology and Demographics
Rhinitis is a very frequent and highly prevalent global disease.[13] Allergic rhinitis is estimated to affect one in every six Americans, and it is the fifth most chronic disease in the U.S.[9] Allergic rhinitis is the most common chronic disease in the pediatric age group in the U.S,[9] and it was the most common diagnosis reported in the 2000 Otolaryngology Workforce study.[14] The estimated prevalence of allergic rhinitis ranges from 9-42%.[2] Annually, between 30-60 million people in the U.S suffer from allergic rhinitis, 10-30% of these individuals are adults, and up to 40% are children.[13] The prevalence of allergic rhinitis has been found to be increasing in countries worldwide, and factors such as increased airborne pollution, a rise in the population of dust mite in inadequately ventilated offices/homes with central heating/air conditioning, and sedentary lifestyles, have been suggested to contribute to the rise in its prevalence.[15][10][16] The prevalence of allergic rhinitis has significantly increased during the past 50 years, with over 50% of adolecents in some countries reporting symptoms of allergic rhinitis.[10] The prevalence of allergic rhinitis was noticed to have doubled in several countries over the last two decades in studies done in children between the ages 6-14years around the globe.[16] Nonallergic rhinitis is also very common, and it has been estimated to affect about 19 million people in the U.S.[2] "Mixed rhinitis" is estimated to affect about 26 million individuals in the United States.[2]
Risk factors
Some of the risk factors for allergic rhinitis include a history of other atopic diseases such as asthma and atopic dermatitis, and a history of rhinitis in the parent. Some risk factors for infectious rhinitis are daycare attendance, young age, and exposure to air pollutants.
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Allergic rhinitis rarely occurs in isolation, it is a product of a genetic predisposition, epigenetic events, and environmental exposures, and it is frequently associated with other forms of atopy such as eczema, asthma, and allergic eye disease(allergic rhinoconjunctivitis).[17][18][14] The vast majority of individuals with asthma have rhinitis, and allergic eye disease has been reported to affect almost all patients with allergic rhinitis.[17][10] Nonallergic rhinitis is also associated with asthma.[19][10] Frequent extension of rhinitis (especially infectious rhinitis) into the sinuses also occur, resulting in rhinosinusitis.[7][13] Children with nonallergic rhinitis have a higher likelihood of undergoing remission, compared with those with allergic rhinitis, who tend to have a more persistent disease.[19] Remission occurs in up to 73% of four year old children with nonallergic rhinitis by the age of eight years.[19] Rhinitis is a significant cause of lost school and work days, and it constitutes a huge financial burden to the society.[15][20] Untreated/poorly treated chronic rhinitis is associated with a diminished quality of life, disordered sleep, impaired work performance, and several other comorbidities.[13][18]
History and Symptoms
Physical Examination
Laboratory Findings
X ray
CT
Other Diagnostic Studies
Medical Therapy
Surgery
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Wallace DV, Dykewicz MS, Bernstein DI, Blessing-Moore J, Cox L, Khan DA; et al. (2008). "The diagnosis and management of rhinitis: an updated practice parameter". J Allergy Clin Immunol. 122 (2 Suppl): S1–84. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2008.06.003. PMID PMID:18662584 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Settipane RA, Charnock DR (2007). "Epidemiology of rhinitis: allergic and nonallergic". Clin Allergy Immunol. 19: 23–34. PMID 17153005.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Paraskevopoulos, Giannis; Kalogiros, Lampros (March 2016). "Non-Allergic Rhinitis". Current Treatment Options in Allergy. Volume 3 (Issue 1): 45–68. doi:10.1007/s40521-016-0072-6. Retrieved January 5, 2017.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Sacre-Hazouri JA (2012). "[Chronic rhinosinusitis in children]". Rev Alerg Mex. 59 (1): 16–24. PMID 24007929.
- ↑ Sin B, Togias A (2011). "Pathophysiology of allergic and nonallergic rhinitis". Proc Am Thorac Soc. 8 (1): 106–14. doi:10.1513/pats.201008-057RN. PMID 21364228.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Bousquet J, Khaltaev N, Cruz AA, Denburg J, Fokkens WJ, Togias A; et al. (2008). "Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma (ARIA) 2008 update (in collaboration with the World Health Organization, GA(2)LEN and AllerGen)". Allergy. 63 Suppl 86: 8–160. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2007.01620.x. PMID 18331513 PMID: 18331513 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Dykewicz MS, Hamilos DL (2010). "Rhinitis and sinusitis". J Allergy Clin Immunol. 125 (2 Suppl 2): S103–15. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.12.989. PMID 20176255.
- ↑ Sin B, Togias A (2011). "Pathophysiology of allergic and nonallergic rhinitis". Proc Am Thorac Soc. 8 (1): 106–14. doi:10.1513/pats.201008-057RN. PMID 21364228.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Seidman MD, Gurgel RK, Lin SY, Schwartz SR, Baroody FM, Bonner JR; et al. (2015). "Clinical practice guideline: allergic rhinitis executive summary". Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 152 (2): 197–206. doi:10.1177/0194599814562166. PMID 25645524.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Bousquet J, Khaltaev N, Cruz AA, Denburg J, Fokkens WJ, Togias A; et al. (2008). "Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma (ARIA) 2008 update (in collaboration with the World Health Organization, GA(2)LEN and AllerGen)". Allergy. 63 Suppl 86: 8–160. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2007.01620.x. PMID 18331513.
- ↑ Sin B, Togias A (2011). "Pathophysiology of allergic and nonallergic rhinitis". Proc Am Thorac Soc. 8 (1): 106–14. doi:10.1513/pats.201008-057RN. PMID 21364228.
- ↑ Skoner DP (2001). "Allergic rhinitis: definition, epidemiology, pathophysiology, detection, and diagnosis". J Allergy Clin Immunol. 108 (1 Suppl): S2–8. PMID 11449200.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Romeo, Jonathan; Dykewicz, Mark (2014). "Chapter 9:Differential Diagnosis of Rhinitis and Rhinosinusitis". Diseases of the Sinuses. Springer New York. pp. 133–152. ISBN 978-1-4939-0265-1.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Mims JW (2014). "Epidemiology of allergic rhinitis". Int Forum Allergy Rhinol. 4 Suppl 2: S18–20. doi:10.1002/alr.21385. PMID 25182349.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Schoenwetter WF, Dupclay L, Appajosyula S, Botteman MF, Pashos CL (2004). "Economic impact and quality-of-life burden of allergic rhinitis". Curr Med Res Opin. 20 (3): 305–17. doi:10.1185/030079903125003053. PMID 15025839.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Katelaris CH, Lee BW, Potter PC, Maspero JF, Cingi C, Lopatin A; et al. (2012). "Prevalence and diversity of allergic rhinitis in regions of the world beyond Europe and North America". Clin Exp Allergy. 42 (2): 186–207. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03891.x. PMID 22092947.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Shaker M, Salcone E (2016). "An update on ocular allergy". Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 16 (5): 505–10. doi:10.1097/ACI.0000000000000299. PMID 27490123.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Sacre Hazouri JA (2006). "[Allergic rhinitis. Coexistent diseases and complications. A review and analysis]". Rev Alerg Mex. 53 (1): 9–29. PMID 16634358.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Westman M, Stjärne P, Asarnoj A, Kull I, van Hage M, Wickman M; et al. (2012). "Natural course and comorbidities of allergic and nonallergic rhinitis in children". J Allergy Clin Immunol. 129 (2): 403–8. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2011.09.036. PMID 22056609.
- ↑ Wallace DV, Dykewicz MS, Bernstein DI, Blessing-Moore J, Cox L, Khan DA; et al. (2008). "The diagnosis and management of rhinitis: an updated practice parameter". J Allergy Clin Immunol. 122 (2 Suppl): S1–84. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2008.06.003. PMID 18662584.