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Abscesses are caused by many different pathogens based on their anatomical location. The following table summarizes pathogenic causes of abscesses.<ref name="pmid15573356">{{cite journal| author=Brook I| title=Microbiology and management of peritonsillar, retropharyngeal, and parapharyngeal abscesses. | journal=J Oral Maxillofac Surg | year= 2004 | volume= 62 | issue= 12 | pages= 1545-50 | pmid=15573356 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15573356 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18039418">{{cite journal| author=Megalamani SB, Suria G, Manickam U, Balasubramanian D, Jothimahalingam S| title=Changing trends in bacteriology of peritonsillar abscess. | journal=J Laryngol Otol | year= 2008 | volume= 122 | issue= 9 | pages= 928-30 | pmid=18039418 | doi=10.1017/S0022215107001144 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18039418 }} </ref><ref name="pmid1875138">{{cite journal| author=Snow DG, Campbell JB, Morgan DW| title=The microbiology of peritonsillar sepsis. | journal=J Laryngol Otol | year= 1991 | volume= 105 | issue= 7 | pages= 553-5 | pmid=1875138 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1875138 }} </ref><ref name="pmid12092281">{{cite journal| author=Matsuda A, Tanaka H, Kanaya T, Kamata K, Hasegawa M| title=Peritonsillar abscess: a study of 724 cases in Japan. | journal=Ear Nose Throat J | year= 2002 | volume= 81 | issue= 6 | pages= 384-9 | pmid=12092281 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12092281 }} </ref><ref name="pmid2235179">{{cite journal| author=Asmar BI| title=Bacteriology of retropharyngeal abscess in children. | journal=Pediatr Infect Dis J | year= 1990 | volume= 9 | issue= 8 | pages= 595-7 | pmid=2235179 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2235179 }} </ref><ref name="pmid14623752">{{cite journal| author=McClay JE, Murray AD, Booth T| title=Intravenous antibiotic therapy for deep neck abscesses defined by computed tomography. | journal=Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg | year= 2003 | volume= 129 | issue= 11 | pages= 1207-12 | pmid=14623752 | doi=10.1001/archotol.129.11.1207 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14623752 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18427007">{{cite journal| author=Wright CT, Stocks RM, Armstrong DL, Arnold SR, Gould HJ| title=Pediatric mediastinitis as a complication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus retropharyngeal abscess. | journal=Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg | year= 2008 | volume= 134 | issue= 4 | pages= 408-13 | pmid=18427007 | doi=10.1001/archotol.134.4.408 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18427007 }} </ref><ref name="pmid15573356">{{cite journal| author=Brook I| title=Microbiology and management of peritonsillar, retropharyngeal, and parapharyngeal abscesses. | journal=J Oral Maxillofac Surg | year= 2004 | volume= 62 | issue= 12 | pages= 1545-50 | pmid=15573356 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15573356 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18948832">{{cite journal| author=Inman JC, Rowe M, Ghostine M, Fleck T| title=Pediatric neck abscesses: changing organisms and empiric therapies. | journal=Laryngoscope | year= 2008 | volume= 118 | issue= 12 | pages= 2111-4 | pmid=18948832 | doi=10.1097/MLG.0b013e318182a4fb | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18948832 }} </ref><ref name="pmid22481424">{{cite journal| author=Abdel-Haq N, Quezada M, Asmar BI| title=Retropharyngeal abscess in children: the rising incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. | journal=Pediatr Infect Dis J | year= 2012 | volume= 31 | issue= 7 | pages= 696-9 | pmid=22481424 | doi=10.1097/INF.0b013e318256fff0 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22481424 }} </ref><ref name="pmid23520072">{{cite journal| author=Cheng J, Elden L| title=Children with deep space neck infections: our experience with 178 children. | journal=Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg | year= 2013 | volume= 148 | issue= 6 | pages= 1037-42 | pmid=23520072 | doi=10.1177/0194599813482292 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23520072 }} </ref> | Abscesses are caused by many different pathogens based on their anatomical location. The following table summarizes pathogenic causes of abscesses.<ref name="pmid15573356">{{cite journal| author=Brook I| title=Microbiology and management of peritonsillar, retropharyngeal, and parapharyngeal abscesses. | journal=J Oral Maxillofac Surg | year= 2004 | volume= 62 | issue= 12 | pages= 1545-50 | pmid=15573356 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15573356 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18039418">{{cite journal| author=Megalamani SB, Suria G, Manickam U, Balasubramanian D, Jothimahalingam S| title=Changing trends in bacteriology of peritonsillar abscess. | journal=J Laryngol Otol | year= 2008 | volume= 122 | issue= 9 | pages= 928-30 | pmid=18039418 | doi=10.1017/S0022215107001144 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18039418 }} </ref><ref name="pmid1875138">{{cite journal| author=Snow DG, Campbell JB, Morgan DW| title=The microbiology of peritonsillar sepsis. | journal=J Laryngol Otol | year= 1991 | volume= 105 | issue= 7 | pages= 553-5 | pmid=1875138 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1875138 }} </ref><ref name="pmid12092281">{{cite journal| author=Matsuda A, Tanaka H, Kanaya T, Kamata K, Hasegawa M| title=Peritonsillar abscess: a study of 724 cases in Japan. | journal=Ear Nose Throat J | year= 2002 | volume= 81 | issue= 6 | pages= 384-9 | pmid=12092281 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12092281 }} </ref><ref name="pmid2235179">{{cite journal| author=Asmar BI| title=Bacteriology of retropharyngeal abscess in children. | journal=Pediatr Infect Dis J | year= 1990 | volume= 9 | issue= 8 | pages= 595-7 | pmid=2235179 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2235179 }} </ref><ref name="pmid14623752">{{cite journal| author=McClay JE, Murray AD, Booth T| title=Intravenous antibiotic therapy for deep neck abscesses defined by computed tomography. | journal=Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg | year= 2003 | volume= 129 | issue= 11 | pages= 1207-12 | pmid=14623752 | doi=10.1001/archotol.129.11.1207 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14623752 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18427007">{{cite journal| author=Wright CT, Stocks RM, Armstrong DL, Arnold SR, Gould HJ| title=Pediatric mediastinitis as a complication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus retropharyngeal abscess. | journal=Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg | year= 2008 | volume= 134 | issue= 4 | pages= 408-13 | pmid=18427007 | doi=10.1001/archotol.134.4.408 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18427007 }} </ref><ref name="pmid15573356">{{cite journal| author=Brook I| title=Microbiology and management of peritonsillar, retropharyngeal, and parapharyngeal abscesses. | journal=J Oral Maxillofac Surg | year= 2004 | volume= 62 | issue= 12 | pages= 1545-50 | pmid=15573356 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15573356 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18948832">{{cite journal| author=Inman JC, Rowe M, Ghostine M, Fleck T| title=Pediatric neck abscesses: changing organisms and empiric therapies. | journal=Laryngoscope | year= 2008 | volume= 118 | issue= 12 | pages= 2111-4 | pmid=18948832 | doi=10.1097/MLG.0b013e318182a4fb | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18948832 }} </ref><ref name="pmid22481424">{{cite journal| author=Abdel-Haq N, Quezada M, Asmar BI| title=Retropharyngeal abscess in children: the rising incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. | journal=Pediatr Infect Dis J | year= 2012 | volume= 31 | issue= 7 | pages= 696-9 | pmid=22481424 | doi=10.1097/INF.0b013e318256fff0 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22481424 }} </ref><ref name="pmid23520072">{{cite journal| author=Cheng J, Elden L| title=Children with deep space neck infections: our experience with 178 children. | journal=Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg | year= 2013 | volume= 148 | issue= 6 | pages= 1037-42 | pmid=23520072 | doi=10.1177/0194599813482292 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23520072 }} </ref> | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
!Anatomical location | ! colspan="2" |Anatomical location | ||
!Common causes | !Common causes | ||
!Less common causes | !Less common causes | ||
!Comments | !Comments | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Brain abscess | | colspan="2" |Brain abscess | ||
| | | | ||
* [[Staphylococcus aureus]] | * [[Staphylococcus aureus]] | ||
| Line 30: | Line 30: | ||
* To see a complete list of brain abscesses's causes, click [[Brain abscess causes|here]]. | * To see a complete list of brain abscesses's causes, click [[Brain abscess causes|here]]. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Tonsillar and peritonsillar abscess | | colspan="2" |Tonsillar and peritonsillar abscess | ||
| | | | ||
*[[Streptococcus pyogenes]] | *[[Streptococcus pyogenes]] | ||
| Line 48: | Line 48: | ||
| -- | | -- | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Retropharyngeal abscess | | colspan="2" |Retropharyngeal abscess | ||
| | | | ||
* | *[[Streptococcus Group A|Beta-hemolytic streptococcus]] | ||
*[[Streptococcus pyogenes]] (group A streptococcus [GAS]) | *[[Streptococcus pyogenes]] (group A streptococcus [GAS]) | ||
*[[Staphylococcus aureus]] (including methicillin-resistant S. aureus [MRSA]) | *[[Staphylococcus aureus]] (including methicillin-resistant S. aureus [MRSA]) | ||
| | | | ||
*[[Haemophilus Influenzae B|Haemophilus Influenzae]] | *[[Haemophilus Influenzae B|Haemophilus Influenzae]] | ||
| Line 62: | Line 59: | ||
*[[Bacteroides]] | *[[Bacteroides]] | ||
*[[Fusobacterium]] | *[[Fusobacterium]] | ||
| | | | ||
* Retropharyngeal abscess are usually caused by polymicrobial flora. | |||
* To see a complete list of retropharyngeal abscess' causes, click [[Retropharyngeal abscess causes|here]]. | |||
|- | |- | ||
|Lung Abscess | | colspan="2" |Lung Abscess | ||
| | | | ||
*[[Bacteroides]] | *[[Bacteroides]] | ||
| Line 81: | Line 77: | ||
*[[Melioidosis]] | *[[Melioidosis]] | ||
| | | | ||
* About 90% of the lung abscess is caused by polymicrobial [[infection]].<ref name="pmid28705">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cesar L, Gonzalez C, Calia FM |title=Bacteriologic flora of aspiration-induced pulmonary infections |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=135 |issue=5 |pages=711–4 |year=1975 |pmid=28705 |doi= |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid22209937">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bartlett JG |title=Anaerobic bacterial infection of the lung |journal=Anaerobe |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=235–9 |year=2012 |pmid=22209937 |doi=10.1016/j.anaerobe.2011.12.004 |url=}}</ref> | * About 90% of the lung abscess is caused by polymicrobial [[infection]].<ref name="pmid28705">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cesar L, Gonzalez C, Calia FM |title=Bacteriologic flora of aspiration-induced pulmonary infections |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=135 |issue=5 |pages=711–4 |year=1975 |pmid=28705 |doi= |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid22209937">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bartlett JG |title=Anaerobic bacterial infection of the lung |journal=Anaerobe |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=235–9 |year=2012 |pmid=22209937 |doi=10.1016/j.anaerobe.2011.12.004 |url=}}</ref> | ||
* [[Anaerobes]] are the predominant [[pathogens]] involved in primary lung abscess, followed by [[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]. | * [[Anaerobes]] are the predominant [[pathogens]] involved in primary lung abscess, followed by [[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]. | ||
* [[Klebsiella pneumoniae]] is the more commonly seen in alcoholics.<ref name="pmid15824979">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang JL, Chen KY, Fang CT, Hsueh PR, Yang PC, Chang SC |title=Changing bacteriology of adult community-acquired lung abscess in Taiwan: Klebsiella pneumoniae versus anaerobes |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=40 |issue=7 |pages=915–22 |year=2005 |pmid=15824979 |doi=10.1086/428574 |url=}}</ref> | * [[Klebsiella pneumoniae]] is the more commonly seen in alcoholics.<ref name="pmid15824979">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang JL, Chen KY, Fang CT, Hsueh PR, Yang PC, Chang SC |title=Changing bacteriology of adult community-acquired lung abscess in Taiwan: Klebsiella pneumoniae versus anaerobes |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=40 |issue=7 |pages=915–22 |year=2005 |pmid=15824979 |doi=10.1086/428574 |url=}}</ref> | ||
* To see a complete list of lung abscess' causes, click [[Lung abscess causes|here]]. | |||
|- | |- | ||
|Breast Abscess | | colspan="2" |Breast Abscess | ||
| | |||
* [[Staphylococcus aureus]] | |||
* [[Streptococcus pyogenes]] | |||
* [[Lactobacillus]] | |||
* [[Clostridium]] | |||
| | | | ||
* [[Bacteroides]] spp | |||
* [[Enterobacteria]] | |||
| -- | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan="3" |Liver abscess | |||
|Pyogenic | |||
| | | | ||
* [[Streptococcus|Streptococcus sp]] | |||
* ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' | |||
* ''[[Staphylococcus epidermidis]]'' | |||
* [[Escherichia coli]] | |||
* [[Salmonella typhi]] | |||
* [[Yersinia enterocolitica]] | |||
* [[Bacteroides|Bacteroids sp]] | |||
* [[Fusobacterium]] | |||
| | | | ||
* [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]] | |||
* ''[[Actinomyces|Actinomyces sp]]'' | |||
* ''[[Enterococcus|Enterococcus sp]]'' | |||
* [[Streptococcus milleri]] | |||
* [[Klebsiella|K.pneumonia]] | |||
* ''[[Pseudomonas|Pseudomonas sp]]'' | |||
|To see a complete list of pyogenic liver abscess' causes, click [[Pyogenic liver abscess causes|here]]. | |||
|- | |- | ||
|Amoebic | |||
| | | | ||
* [[Entamoeba histolytica]] | |||
|<nowiki>--</nowiki> | |||
|<nowiki>--</nowiki> | |||
|- | |||
|Fungal | |||
| | | | ||
* ''[[Candida|Candida species]]'' | |||
* [[Aspergillus|Aspergillus species]] | |||
|<nowiki>--</nowiki> | |||
|<nowiki>--</nowiki> | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" |Splenic abscess | |||
| | | | ||
** [[Staphylococcus|Staphylococcus species]] | |||
** [[Streptococcus|Streptococcal species]] | |||
** [[Bacteroides]] | |||
** [[Actinomyces]] | |||
** [[Candida albicans]] | |||
** [[Entamoeba histolytica]] | |||
| | | | ||
* [[Aureobasidium pullulans]] | |||
* [[Bacillus cereus]] | |||
* [[Brucella]] | |||
* [[Citrobacter freundii]] | |||
* [[Cryptococcus neoformans]] | |||
|To see a complete list of splenic abscess' causes, click here. | |||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" |Pancreatic abscess | |||
| | | | ||
* [[Enterococcus]] | |||
* [[Escherichia coli]] | |||
* [[Klebsiella pneumoniae]] | |||
* [[Bacteroides fragilis]] | |||
* [[Candida albicans]] | |||
* [[Entamoeba histolytica]] | |||
| | | | ||
* [[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]] | |||
* [[Staphylococcus aureus]] | |||
* [[Proteus]] | |||
* [[Clostridium perfringens]] | |||
* [[Candida tropicalis]] | |||
| -- | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" |Appendicular abscess | |||
| | |||
* [[Enterococcus]] | |||
* [[Escherichia coli]] | |||
* [[Staphylococcus aureus]] | |||
* [[Bacteroides fragilis]] | |||
* [[Clostridium perfringens]] | |||
| | |||
* [[Klebsiella pneumoniae]] | |||
* [[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]] | |||
* [[Proteus]] | |||
| -- | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" |Colonic abscess | |||
| | | | ||
* [[Enterococcus]] | |||
* [[Escherichia coli]] | |||
* [[Staphylococcus aureus]] | |||
* [[Bacteroides fragilis]] | |||
* [[Clostridium perfringens|Clostridium perfringen]] | |||
| | | | ||
* [[Klebsiella pneumoniae]] | |||
* [[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]] | |||
* [[Proteus]] | |||
| -- | |||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" |Anal abscess | |||
| | | | ||
* [[E.coli]] | |||
* [[Staphylococcus aureus]] | |||
* [[MRSA]] | |||
| -- | |||
| -- | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" |Cutaneous abscess | |||
| | | | ||
* [[Staphylococcus aureus|S. aureus]] (either [[S. aureus|methicillin-susceptible]] or [[Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus|methicillin-resistant S. aureus]]) | |||
* Mixed flora (including [[Staphylococcus aureus|S. aureus]] together with [[Streptococcus pyogenes|S. pyogenes]] and [[gram-negative bacilli]] with [[anaerobes]]) | |||
* [[Anaerobes]] | |||
| | | | ||
* [[Nontuberculous mycobacteria]] | |||
* [[Blastomycosis]] | |||
* [[Nocardiosis]] | |||
* [[Cryptococcosis]] | |||
| | | | ||
|} | |} | ||
Revision as of 16:06, 27 April 2017
|
Abscess Main page |
For patient information click here
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]:Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Seyedmahdi Pahlavani, M.D. [2]
Overview
Causes
Abscesses are caused by many different pathogens based on their anatomical location. The following table summarizes pathogenic causes of abscesses.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][1][8][9][10]
| Anatomical location | Common causes | Less common causes | Comments | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brain abscess |
| |||
| Tonsillar and peritonsillar abscess | -- | |||
| Retropharyngeal abscess |
|
|
| |
| Lung Abscess |
| |||
| Breast Abscess | -- | |||
| Liver abscess | Pyogenic | To see a complete list of pyogenic liver abscess' causes, click here. | ||
| Amoebic | -- | -- | ||
| Fungal | -- | -- | ||
| Splenic abscess | To see a complete list of splenic abscess' causes, click here. | |||
| Pancreatic abscess | -- | |||
| Appendicular abscess | -- | |||
| Colonic abscess | -- | |||
| Anal abscess | -- | -- | ||
| Cutaneous abscess |
|
|||
Classification
Differential diagnosis
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Brook I (2004). "Microbiology and management of peritonsillar, retropharyngeal, and parapharyngeal abscesses". J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 62 (12): 1545–50. PMID 15573356.
- ↑ Megalamani SB, Suria G, Manickam U, Balasubramanian D, Jothimahalingam S (2008). "Changing trends in bacteriology of peritonsillar abscess". J Laryngol Otol. 122 (9): 928–30. doi:10.1017/S0022215107001144. PMID 18039418.
- ↑ Snow DG, Campbell JB, Morgan DW (1991). "The microbiology of peritonsillar sepsis". J Laryngol Otol. 105 (7): 553–5. PMID 1875138.
- ↑ Matsuda A, Tanaka H, Kanaya T, Kamata K, Hasegawa M (2002). "Peritonsillar abscess: a study of 724 cases in Japan". Ear Nose Throat J. 81 (6): 384–9. PMID 12092281.
- ↑ Asmar BI (1990). "Bacteriology of retropharyngeal abscess in children". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 9 (8): 595–7. PMID 2235179.
- ↑ McClay JE, Murray AD, Booth T (2003). "Intravenous antibiotic therapy for deep neck abscesses defined by computed tomography". Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 129 (11): 1207–12. doi:10.1001/archotol.129.11.1207. PMID 14623752.
- ↑ Wright CT, Stocks RM, Armstrong DL, Arnold SR, Gould HJ (2008). "Pediatric mediastinitis as a complication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus retropharyngeal abscess". Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 134 (4): 408–13. doi:10.1001/archotol.134.4.408. PMID 18427007.
- ↑ Inman JC, Rowe M, Ghostine M, Fleck T (2008). "Pediatric neck abscesses: changing organisms and empiric therapies". Laryngoscope. 118 (12): 2111–4. doi:10.1097/MLG.0b013e318182a4fb. PMID 18948832.
- ↑ Abdel-Haq N, Quezada M, Asmar BI (2012). "Retropharyngeal abscess in children: the rising incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 31 (7): 696–9. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e318256fff0. PMID 22481424.
- ↑ Cheng J, Elden L (2013). "Children with deep space neck infections: our experience with 178 children". Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 148 (6): 1037–42. doi:10.1177/0194599813482292. PMID 23520072.
- ↑ Cesar L, Gonzalez C, Calia FM (1975). "Bacteriologic flora of aspiration-induced pulmonary infections". Arch. Intern. Med. 135 (5): 711–4. PMID 28705.
- ↑ Bartlett JG (2012). "Anaerobic bacterial infection of the lung". Anaerobe. 18 (2): 235–9. doi:10.1016/j.anaerobe.2011.12.004. PMID 22209937.
- ↑ Wang JL, Chen KY, Fang CT, Hsueh PR, Yang PC, Chang SC (2005). "Changing bacteriology of adult community-acquired lung abscess in Taiwan: Klebsiella pneumoniae versus anaerobes". Clin. Infect. Dis. 40 (7): 915–22. doi:10.1086/428574. PMID 15824979.