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* Recent studies in both acute and antibiotic refractory, or [[chronic]], Lyme disease have shown a distinct pro-[[inflammatory]] immune process.   
* Recent studies in both acute and antibiotic refractory, or [[chronic]], Lyme disease have shown a distinct pro-[[inflammatory]] immune process.   
* This pro-inflammatory process is a [[cell-mediated immunity]] and results in Th1 upregulation.   
* This pro-inflammatory process is a [[cell-mediated immunity]] and results in Th1 upregulation.   
* These studies have shown a significant decrease in [[cytokine]] output of [[IL-10]], an upregulation of [[Interleukin-6]] (IL-6), [[Interleukin-12]] (IL-12), and IFN-gamma and disregulation in [[TNF-alpha]] predominantly.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shin JJ, Glickstein LJ, Steere AC |title=High levels of inflammatory chemokines and cytokines in joint fluid and synovial tissue throughout the course of antibiotic-refractory lyme arthritis |journal=Arthritis Rheum. |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=1325-35 |year=2007 |pmid=17393419 |doi=10.1002/art.22441}}</ref>
* These studies have shown a significant decrease in [[cytokine]] output of [[IL-10]], an upregulation of [[Interleukin-6]] ([[IL-6]]), [[Interleukin-12]] (IL-12), and IFN-gamma and disregulation in [[TNF-alpha]] predominantly.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shin JJ, Glickstein LJ, Steere AC |title=High levels of inflammatory chemokines and cytokines in joint fluid and synovial tissue throughout the course of antibiotic-refractory lyme arthritis |journal=Arthritis Rheum. |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=1325-35 |year=2007 |pmid=17393419 |doi=10.1002/art.22441}}</ref>
* Host immune response to infection results in increased levels of IFN-gamma in serum and [[lesions]] of Lyme disease patients that correlate with a greater severity of disease.  
* Host immune response to infection results in increased levels of IFN-gamma in serum and [[lesions]] of Lyme disease patients that correlate with a greater severity of disease.  
* IFN-gamma alters gene expression by [[endothelium|endothelia]] exposed to ''B. burgdorferi'' in a manner that promotes recruitment of [[T cells]] and suppresses that of [[neutrophils]].
* IFN-gamma alters gene expression by [[endothelium|endothelia]] exposed to ''B. burgdorferi'' in a manner that promotes recruitment of [[T cells]] and suppresses that of [[neutrophils]].
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* Such production may play an important role during the development of cognitive disorders in Lyme neuroborreliosis.  
* Such production may play an important role during the development of cognitive disorders in Lyme neuroborreliosis.  
* This effect is associated with induction of [[NF-κB|nuclear factor-kappa B]] (NF-KB) by ''Borrelia''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rasley A, Anguita J, Marriott I |title=Borrelia burgdorferi induces inflammatory mediator production by murine microglia |journal=J. Neuroimmunol. |volume=130 |issue=1-2 |pages=22-31 |year=2002 |pmid=12225885}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rasley A, Tranguch SL, Rati DM, Marriott I |title=Murine glia express the immunosuppressive cytokine, interleukin-10, following exposure to Borrelia burgdorferi or Neisseria meningitidis |journal=Glia |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=583-92 |year=2006 |pmid=16419089 |doi=10.1002/glia.20314}}</ref>
* This effect is associated with induction of [[NF-κB|nuclear factor-kappa B]] (NF-KB) by ''Borrelia''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rasley A, Anguita J, Marriott I |title=Borrelia burgdorferi induces inflammatory mediator production by murine microglia |journal=J. Neuroimmunol. |volume=130 |issue=1-2 |pages=22-31 |year=2002 |pmid=12225885}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rasley A, Tranguch SL, Rati DM, Marriott I |title=Murine glia express the immunosuppressive cytokine, interleukin-10, following exposure to Borrelia burgdorferi or Neisseria meningitidis |journal=Glia |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=583-92 |year=2006 |pmid=16419089 |doi=10.1002/glia.20314}}</ref>
* Deregulated production of pro-inflammatory [[cytokines]] such as IL-6 and [[TNF-alpha]] can lead to neuronal damage in ''Borrelia'' infected patients.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramesh G, Philipp MT |title=Pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1, Erk2, and p38 in the response of astrocytes to Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins |journal=Neurosci. Lett. |volume=384 |issue=1-2 |pages=112-6 |year=2005 |pmid=15893422 |doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2005.04.069}}</ref>  
* Deregulated production of pro-inflammatory [[cytokines]] such as [[IL-6]] and [[TNF-alpha]] can lead to neuronal damage in ''Borrelia'' infected patients.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramesh G, Philipp MT |title=Pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1, Erk2, and p38 in the response of astrocytes to Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins |journal=Neurosci. Lett. |volume=384 |issue=1-2 |pages=112-6 |year=2005 |pmid=15893422 |doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2005.04.069}}</ref>  
* IL-6 and [[TNF-alpha|TNF-Alpha]] [[cytokines]] produce [[fatigue]] and [[malaise]], two of the more prominent symptoms experienced by patients with [[chronic]] Lyme disease.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.columbia-lyme.org/flatp/treatment.html |title=Welcome to Lyme Disease Research Studies |accessdate=2007-08-23 |format= |work=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Papanicolaou DA, Wilder RL, Manolagas SC, Chrousos GP |title=The pathophysiologic roles of interleukin-6 in human disease |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=128 |issue=2 |pages=127-37 |year=1998 |pmid=9441573}}</ref>
* [[IL-6]] and [[TNF-alpha|TNF-Alpha]] [[cytokines]] produce [[fatigue]] and [[malaise]], two of the more prominent symptoms experienced by patients with [[chronic]] Lyme disease.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.columbia-lyme.org/flatp/treatment.html |title=Welcome to Lyme Disease Research Studies |accessdate=2007-08-23 |format= |work=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Papanicolaou DA, Wilder RL, Manolagas SC, Chrousos GP |title=The pathophysiologic roles of interleukin-6 in human disease |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=128 |issue=2 |pages=127-37 |year=1998 |pmid=9441573}}</ref>
* IL-6 is also significantly indicated in cognitive impairment.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wright CB, Sacco RL, Rundek TR, ''et al'' |title=Interleukin-6 is associated with cognitive function: the Northern Manhattan Study |journal= |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=34-38 |year=2006 |pmid=16501663 |doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2005.08.009}}</ref>
* [[IL-6]] is also significantly indicated in cognitive impairment.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wright CB, Sacco RL, Rundek TR, ''et al'' |title=Interleukin-6 is associated with cognitive function: the Northern Manhattan Study |journal= |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=34-38 |year=2006 |pmid=16501663 |doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2005.08.009}}</ref>


====Neuroendocrine====
====Neuroendocrine====
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* Additionally, [[tryptophan]], a precursor to [[serotonin]], appears to be reduced within the [[CNS]] in a number of infectious diseases that affect the brain, including Lyme disease.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gasse T, Murr C, Meyersbach P, ''et al'' |title=Neopterin production and tryptophan degradation in acute Lyme neuroborreliosis versus late Lyme encephalopathy |journal=European journal of clinical chemistry and clinical biochemistry : journal of the Forum of European Clinical Chemistry Societies |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=685-9 |year=1994 |pmid=7865624}}</ref>  
* Additionally, [[tryptophan]], a precursor to [[serotonin]], appears to be reduced within the [[CNS]] in a number of infectious diseases that affect the brain, including Lyme disease.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gasse T, Murr C, Meyersbach P, ''et al'' |title=Neopterin production and tryptophan degradation in acute Lyme neuroborreliosis versus late Lyme encephalopathy |journal=European journal of clinical chemistry and clinical biochemistry : journal of the Forum of European Clinical Chemistry Societies |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=685-9 |year=1994 |pmid=7865624}}</ref>  
* Researchers are investigating if this neurohormone secretion is the cause of neuro-psychiatric disorders that develop in some patients with borreliosis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zajkowska J, Grygorczuk S, Kondrusik M, Pancewicz S, Hermanowska-Szpakowicz T |title=New aspects of pathogenesis of Lyme borreliosis |language=Polish |journal=Przegla̧d epidemiologiczny |volume=60 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=167-70 |year=2006 |pmid=16909797}}</ref>
* Researchers are investigating if this neurohormone secretion is the cause of neuro-psychiatric disorders that develop in some patients with borreliosis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zajkowska J, Grygorczuk S, Kondrusik M, Pancewicz S, Hermanowska-Szpakowicz T |title=New aspects of pathogenesis of Lyme borreliosis |language=Polish |journal=Przegla̧d epidemiologiczny |volume=60 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=167-70 |year=2006 |pmid=16909797}}</ref>
* [[Antidepressants]] acting on [[serotonin]], [[norepinephrine]], and [[dopamine]] receptors have been shown to be immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory against pro-inflammatory [[cytokine]] processes, specifically on the regulation of IFN-gamma and [[IL-10]], as well as [[TNF-alpha]] and IL-6 through a [[Psychoneuroimmunology|psycho-neuroimmunological]] process.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kubera M, Lin AH, Kenis G, Bosmans E, van Bockstaele D, Maes M |title=Anti-Inflammatory effects of antidepressants through suppression of the interferon-gamma/interleukin-10 production ratio |journal=Journal of clinical psychopharmacology |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=199-206 |year=2001 |pmid=11270917}}</ref>
* [[Antidepressants]] acting on [[serotonin]], [[norepinephrine]], and [[dopamine]] receptors have been shown to be immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory against pro-inflammatory [[cytokine]] processes, specifically on the regulation of IFN-gamma and [[IL-10]], as well as [[TNF-alpha]] and [[IL-6]] through a [[Psychoneuroimmunology|psycho-neuroimmunological]] process.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kubera M, Lin AH, Kenis G, Bosmans E, van Bockstaele D, Maes M |title=Anti-Inflammatory effects of antidepressants through suppression of the interferon-gamma/interleukin-10 production ratio |journal=Journal of clinical psychopharmacology |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=199-206 |year=2001 |pmid=11270917}}</ref>
* Antidepressants have also been shown to suppress Th1 upregulation.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Diamond M, Kelly JP, Connor TJ |title=Antidepressants suppress production of the Th1 [[cytokine]] interferon-gamma, independent of monoamine transporter blockade |journal=European neuropsychopharmacology : the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=481-90 |year=2006 |pmid=16388933 |doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.11.011}}</ref>
* Antidepressants have also been shown to suppress Th1 upregulation.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Diamond M, Kelly JP, Connor TJ |title=Antidepressants suppress production of the Th1 [[cytokine]] interferon-gamma, independent of monoamine transporter blockade |journal=European neuropsychopharmacology : the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=481-90 |year=2006 |pmid=16388933 |doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.11.011}}</ref>
* These studies warrant investigation for antidepressants for use in a psycho-neuroimmunological approach for optimal [[pharmacotherapy]] of antibiotic refractory Lyme patients.
* These studies warrant investigation of antidepressants for use in a psycho-neuroimmunological approach for optimal [[pharmacotherapy]] of antibiotic refractory Lyme patients.


====Hyperbaric oxygen therapy====
====Hyperbaric oxygen therapy====
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==== Antifungal medications ====
==== Antifungal medications ====
* Anecdotal clinical research has shown potential for the antifungal [[azole]] medications such as [[fluconazole]] the treatment of Lyme, but has yet to be repeated in a controlled study or postulated a developed hypothetical model for its use.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Schardt FW|title=Clinical effects of fluconazole in patients with neuroborreliosis|journal=Eur. J. Med. Res.|volume=9|issue=7|pages=334-6|year=2004|pmid=15337633}}</ref>
* Anecdotal clinical research has shown potential for the antifungal [[azole]] medications such as [[fluconazole]] the for the treatment of Lyme disease, but has yet to be repeated in a controlled study or postulated a developed hypothetical model for its use.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Schardt FW|title=Clinical effects of fluconazole in patients with neuroborreliosis|journal=Eur. J. Med. Res.|volume=9|issue=7|pages=334-6|year=2004|pmid=15337633}}</ref>


==== Alternative medicine ====
==== Alternative medicine ====
* [[Alternative medicine]] approaches include bee venom because it contains the peptide [[melittin]], which has been shown to exert inhibitory effects on Lyme bacteria [[in vitro]];<ref>{{cite journal|author=Lubke LL, Garon CF|title=The antimicrobial agent melittin exhibits powerful in vitro inhibitory effects on the Lyme disease spirochete|journal=Clin. Infect. Dis.|volume=25 Suppl 1|issue=|pages=S48-51|year=1997|pmid=9233664}}</ref> however, no clinical trials of this treatment have been carried out.
* One [[alternative medicine]] approach is the use of bee venom to treat Lyme disease because it contains the peptide [[melittin]], which has been shown to exert inhibitory effects on Lyme bacteria [[in vitro]]; however, no clinical trials of this treatment have been carried out.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Lubke LL, Garon CF|title=The antimicrobial agent melittin exhibits powerful in vitro inhibitory effects on the Lyme disease spirochete|journal=Clin. Infect. Dis.|volume=25 Suppl 1|issue=|pages=S48-51|year=1997|pmid=9233664}}</ref>


====New Developments====
====New Developments====
* New research has also found that chronic Lyme patients have higher amounts of ''Borrelia''-specific [[FoxP3|forkhead box P3]] (FoxP3) than healthy controls, indicating that [[regulatory T cell]]s might also play a role, by [[immunosuppression]], in the development of chronic Lyme disease.  
* New research has also found that chronic Lyme patients have higher amounts of ''Borrelia''-specific [[FoxP3|forkhead box P3]] (FoxP3) than healthy controls, indicating that [[regulatory T cell]]s might also play a role, by [[immunosuppression]], in the development of [[chronic]] Lyme disease.  
* FoxP3 are a specific marker of regulatory T cells.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jarefors S, Janefjord CK, Forsberg P, Jenmalm MC, Ekerfelt C |title=Decreased up-regulation of the interleukin-12Rbeta2-chain and interferon-gamma secretion and increased number of forkhead box P3-expressing cells in patients with a history of chronic Lyme borreliosis compared with asymptomatic Borrelia-exposed individuals |journal=Clin. Exp. Immunol. |volume=147 |issue=1 |pages=18-27 |year=2007 |pmid=17177959 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2249.2006.03245.x}}</ref>  
* FoxP3 are a specific marker of regulatory [[T cells]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jarefors S, Janefjord CK, Forsberg P, Jenmalm MC, Ekerfelt C |title=Decreased up-regulation of the interleukin-12Rbeta2-chain and interferon-gamma secretion and increased number of forkhead box P3-expressing cells in patients with a history of chronic Lyme borreliosis compared with asymptomatic Borrelia-exposed individuals |journal=Clin. Exp. Immunol. |volume=147 |issue=1 |pages=18-27 |year=2007 |pmid=17177959 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2249.2006.03245.x}}</ref>  
* The signaling pathway [[P38 mitogen-activated protein kinases]] (p38 MAP kinase) has also been identified as promoting expression of pro-inflammatory [[cytokines]] from ''Borrelia''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramesh G, Philipp MT |title=Pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1, Erk2, and p38 in the response of astrocytes to Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins |journal=Neurosci. Lett. |volume=384 |issue=1-2 |pages=112-6 |year=2005 |pmid=15893422 |doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2005.04.069}}</ref>
* The signaling pathway [[P38 mitogen-activated protein kinases]] (p38 MAP kinase) has also been identified as promoting expression of pro-inflammatory [[cytokines]] from ''Borrelia''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramesh G, Philipp MT |title=Pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1, Erk2, and p38 in the response of astrocytes to Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins |journal=Neurosci. Lett. |volume=384 |issue=1-2 |pages=112-6 |year=2005 |pmid=15893422 |doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2005.04.069}}</ref>
* The culmination of these new and ongoing immunological studies suggest this cell-mediated immune disruption in the Lyme patient amplifies the inflammatory process, often rendering it chronic and self-perpetuating, regardless of whether the ''Borrelia'' bacterium is still present in the host, or in the absence of the inciting pathogen in an [[autoimmune]] pattern.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Singh SK, Girschick HJ |title=Toll-like receptors in Borrelia burgdorferi-induced inflammation |journal=Clin. Microbiol. Infect. |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=705-17 |year=2006 |pmid=16842565 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01440.x}}</ref>
* The culmination of these new and ongoing immunological studies suggest this cell-mediated immune disruption in Lyme patients amplifies the inflammatory process, often rendering it [[chronic]] and self-perpetuating, regardless of whether the ''Borrelia'' bacterium is still present in the host, or in the absence of the inciting pathogen in an [[autoimmune]] pattern.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Singh SK, Girschick HJ |title=Toll-like receptors in Borrelia burgdorferi-induced inflammation |journal=Clin. Microbiol. Infect. |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=705-17 |year=2006 |pmid=16842565 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01440.x}}</ref>
* Researchers hope that this new developing understanding of the [[biomolecular]] basis and [[pathology]] of cell-mediated signaling events caused by ''B. burgdorferi'' infection will lead to a greater understanding of immune response and inflammation caused by Lyme disease and, hopefully, new treatment strategies for chronic antibiotic-resistant disease.
* Researchers hope that this new developing understanding of the [[biomolecular]] basis and [[pathology]] of cell-mediated signaling events caused by ''B. burgdorferi'' [[infection]] will lead to a greater understanding of immune response and [[inflammation]] caused by Lyme disease and, hopefully, new treatment strategies for [[chronic]], antibiotic-resistant disease.


===Lyme Funding and Treatment Controversy===
===Lyme Funding and Treatment Controversy===
* Many of the scientists involved in formulating what have become controversial Lyme diagnostic tests and treatment guidelines have been heavily involved in both bioweapons research and commercial vaccine and diagnostic test development, which the Lyme patient community views  as a conflict of interest. <ref>Conflicts of Interest in Lyme Disease: Treatment, Laboratory Testing, and Vaccination, Lyme Disease Association Inc., 2001</ref>  
* Many of the scientists involved in formulating what have become controversial Lyme diagnostic tests and treatment guidelines have been heavily involved in both bioweapons research and commercial vaccine and diagnostic test development, which the Lyme patient community views  as a conflict of interest. <ref>Conflicts of Interest in Lyme Disease: Treatment, Laboratory Testing, and Vaccination, Lyme Disease Association Inc., 2001</ref>  
* In response to these and other concerns expressed by the expanding national community of patients, Richard Blumenthal, the Attorney General of Connecticut has launched an investigation exploring possible corruption.
* In response to these and other concerns expressed by the expanding national community of patients, Richard Blumenthal, the Attorney General of Connecticut, has launched an investigation exploring possible corruption.


* To date, federal research aimed at developing treatments for chronic Lyme disease is roughly $30 million, as contrasted to a $22 billion budget for military biodefense.   
* To date, federal research aimed at developing treatments for chronic Lyme disease is roughly $30 million, as contrasted to a $22 billion budget for military biodefense.   
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* In 2003, Lyme researcher Dr. Mark Klempner was appointed head of the new $1.6 billion biodefense top-security facility at [[Boston University]].<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A27646-2005Jan21.html Washington Post January 22, 2005]</ref>
* In 2003, Lyme researcher Dr. Mark Klempner was appointed head of the new $1.6 billion biodefense top-security facility at [[Boston University]].<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A27646-2005Jan21.html Washington Post January 22, 2005]</ref>
* In 2004, Lyme researcher Dr. Jorge Benach,<ref>[http://www.nystar.state.ny.us/nl/archives2004/longislandA08-04.htm NYStar News Publication of the New York State Office of Science, Technology and Academic Research, August 2004]</ref> was reportedly chosen as a recipient for a $3 million biodefense research grant, and in 2005, Lyme researcher Dr. Alan Barbour was reportedly placed in charge of a $40 million dollar new biodefense complex based at UC Irvine.  <ref>[http://www.ucihealth.com/News/Releases/06-05BiodefenseResearch.htm UCI Medical Centre, June 1, 2005]</ref>
* In 2004, Lyme researcher Dr. Jorge Benach was reportedly chosen as a recipient for a $3 million biodefense research grant, and in 2005, Lyme researcher Dr. Alan Barbour was reportedly placed in charge of a $40 million dollar new biodefense complex based at UC Irvine.<ref>[http://www.nystar.state.ny.us/nl/archives2004/longislandA08-04.htm NYStar News Publication of the New York State Office of Science, Technology and Academic Research, August 2004]</ref><ref>[http://www.ucihealth.com/News/Releases/06-05BiodefenseResearch.htm UCI Medical Centre, June 1, 2005]</ref>
* Former NIH [[Lyme disease]] program officer, Edward McSweegan has published numerous articles and letters to editorial pages relating to biowarfare topics ranging from anthrax to plague.  
* Former NIH [[Lyme disease]] program officer Edward McSweegan has published numerous articles and letters to editorial pages relating to biowarfare topics ranging from anthrax to plague.  
* Curiously, Mr. McSweegan's novel, Deliberate Release, is biowarfare thriller that describes the deliberate release of a germ weapon. <ref>McSweegan, Edward , "Deliberate Release", published September 20, 2002 by 1st Books Library, ISBN-10: 1403343535.</ref>
* Curiously, Mr. McSweegan's novel, ''Deliberate Release'', is a biowarfare thriller that describes the deliberate release of a germ weapon.<ref>McSweegan, Edward , "Deliberate Release", published September 20, 2002 by 1st Books Library, ISBN-10: 1403343535.</ref>


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 19:30, 7 August 2017

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

Overview

Future investigational therapies of Lyme disease are directed towards decreasing the pro inflammatory immune process and decreasing Th1 upregulation. Studies have also been conducted to test the role of neurohormones in neuropsychiatric complications of Lyme disease.

Future or Investigational Therapies

Inflammation

  • Recent studies in both acute and antibiotic refractory, or chronic, Lyme disease have shown a distinct pro-inflammatory immune process.
  • This pro-inflammatory process is a cell-mediated immunity and results in Th1 upregulation.
  • These studies have shown a significant decrease in cytokine output of IL-10, an upregulation of Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Interleukin-12 (IL-12), and IFN-gamma and disregulation in TNF-alpha predominantly.[1]
  • Host immune response to infection results in increased levels of IFN-gamma in serum and lesions of Lyme disease patients that correlate with a greater severity of disease.
  • IFN-gamma alters gene expression by endothelia exposed to B. burgdorferi in a manner that promotes recruitment of T cells and suppresses that of neutrophils.
  • Suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins are induced by cytokines, and T cell receptors can down-regulate cytokines and T cell signaling in macrophages.
  • It is hypothesized that SOCS are induced by IL-10 and B. burgdorferi and its lipoproteins in macrophages, and that SOCS may mediate the inhibition of IL-10 by concomitantly elicited cytokines.
  • IL-10 is generally regarded as an anti-inflammatory cytokine, since it acts on several different cell types to suppress the production of proinflammatory mediators.
  • Researchers are also beginning to identify microglia as a previously unrecognized source of inflammatory mediator production following infection with B. burgdorferi.
  • Such production may play an important role during the development of cognitive disorders in Lyme neuroborreliosis.
  • This effect is associated with induction of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-KB) by Borrelia.[2][3]
  • Deregulated production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-alpha can lead to neuronal damage in Borrelia infected patients.[4]
  • IL-6 and TNF-Alpha cytokines produce fatigue and malaise, two of the more prominent symptoms experienced by patients with chronic Lyme disease.[5][6]
  • IL-6 is also significantly indicated in cognitive impairment.[7]

Neuroendocrine

  • A developing hypothesis is that the chronic secretion of stress hormones as a result of Borrelia infection may reduce the effect of neurotransmitters, or other receptors in the brain by cell-mediated pro-inflammatory pathways, thereby leading to the dysregulation of neurohormones, specifically glucocorticoids and catecholamines, the major stress hormones.[8][9]
  • This process is mediated via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
  • Additionally, tryptophan, a precursor to serotonin, appears to be reduced within the CNS in a number of infectious diseases that affect the brain, including Lyme disease.[10]
  • Researchers are investigating if this neurohormone secretion is the cause of neuro-psychiatric disorders that develop in some patients with borreliosis.[11]
  • Antidepressants acting on serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine receptors have been shown to be immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory against pro-inflammatory cytokine processes, specifically on the regulation of IFN-gamma and IL-10, as well as TNF-alpha and IL-6 through a psycho-neuroimmunological process.[12]
  • Antidepressants have also been shown to suppress Th1 upregulation.[13]
  • These studies warrant investigation of antidepressants for use in a psycho-neuroimmunological approach for optimal pharmacotherapy of antibiotic refractory Lyme patients.

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy

  • The use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy (which is used conventionally to treat a number of other conditions), as an adjunct to antibiotics for Lyme has been discussed.[14]
  • Though there are no published data from clinical trials to support its use, preliminary results using a mouse model suggest its effectiveness against B. burgdorferi both in vitro and in vivo.[15]

Antifungal medications

  • Anecdotal clinical research has shown potential for the antifungal azole medications such as fluconazole the for the treatment of Lyme disease, but has yet to be repeated in a controlled study or postulated a developed hypothetical model for its use.[16]

Alternative medicine

  • One alternative medicine approach is the use of bee venom to treat Lyme disease because it contains the peptide melittin, which has been shown to exert inhibitory effects on Lyme bacteria in vitro; however, no clinical trials of this treatment have been carried out.[17]

New Developments

  • New research has also found that chronic Lyme patients have higher amounts of Borrelia-specific forkhead box P3 (FoxP3) than healthy controls, indicating that regulatory T cells might also play a role, by immunosuppression, in the development of chronic Lyme disease.
  • FoxP3 are a specific marker of regulatory T cells.[18]
  • The signaling pathway P38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38 MAP kinase) has also been identified as promoting expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines from Borrelia.[19]
  • The culmination of these new and ongoing immunological studies suggest this cell-mediated immune disruption in Lyme patients amplifies the inflammatory process, often rendering it chronic and self-perpetuating, regardless of whether the Borrelia bacterium is still present in the host, or in the absence of the inciting pathogen in an autoimmune pattern.[20]
  • Researchers hope that this new developing understanding of the biomolecular basis and pathology of cell-mediated signaling events caused by B. burgdorferi infection will lead to a greater understanding of immune response and inflammation caused by Lyme disease and, hopefully, new treatment strategies for chronic, antibiotic-resistant disease.

Lyme Funding and Treatment Controversy

  • Many of the scientists involved in formulating what have become controversial Lyme diagnostic tests and treatment guidelines have been heavily involved in both bioweapons research and commercial vaccine and diagnostic test development, which the Lyme patient community views as a conflict of interest. [21]
  • In response to these and other concerns expressed by the expanding national community of patients, Richard Blumenthal, the Attorney General of Connecticut, has launched an investigation exploring possible corruption.
  • To date, federal research aimed at developing treatments for chronic Lyme disease is roughly $30 million, as contrasted to a $22 billion budget for military biodefense.
  • Scientists setting Lyme treatment and diagnostic testing policy in the United States have a well publicized history in the biodefense field, and many have recently received lucrative biodefense grants for BSL-3 and BSL-4 Labs where, critics contend, Lyme treatment research lacks transparency, accountability and focus on treatment research.[22][23]
  • In 2003, Lyme researcher Dr. Mark Klempner was appointed head of the new $1.6 billion biodefense top-security facility at Boston University.[24]
  • In 2004, Lyme researcher Dr. Jorge Benach was reportedly chosen as a recipient for a $3 million biodefense research grant, and in 2005, Lyme researcher Dr. Alan Barbour was reportedly placed in charge of a $40 million dollar new biodefense complex based at UC Irvine.[25][26]
  • Former NIH Lyme disease program officer Edward McSweegan has published numerous articles and letters to editorial pages relating to biowarfare topics ranging from anthrax to plague.
  • Curiously, Mr. McSweegan's novel, Deliberate Release, is a biowarfare thriller that describes the deliberate release of a germ weapon.[27]

References

  1. ↑ Shin JJ, Glickstein LJ, Steere AC (2007). "High levels of inflammatory chemokines and cytokines in joint fluid and synovial tissue throughout the course of antibiotic-refractory lyme arthritis". Arthritis Rheum. 56 (4): 1325–35. doi:10.1002/art.22441. PMID 17393419.
  2. ↑ Rasley A, Anguita J, Marriott I (2002). "Borrelia burgdorferi induces inflammatory mediator production by murine microglia". J. Neuroimmunol. 130 (1–2): 22–31. PMID 12225885.
  3. ↑ Rasley A, Tranguch SL, Rati DM, Marriott I (2006). "Murine glia express the immunosuppressive cytokine, interleukin-10, following exposure to Borrelia burgdorferi or Neisseria meningitidis". Glia. 53 (6): 583–92. doi:10.1002/glia.20314. PMID 16419089.
  4. ↑ Ramesh G, Philipp MT (2005). "Pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1, Erk2, and p38 in the response of astrocytes to Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins". Neurosci. Lett. 384 (1–2): 112–6. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.04.069. PMID 15893422.
  5. ↑ "Welcome to Lyme Disease Research Studies". Retrieved 2007-08-23.
  6. ↑ Papanicolaou DA, Wilder RL, Manolagas SC, Chrousos GP (1998). "The pathophysiologic roles of interleukin-6 in human disease". Ann. Intern. Med. 128 (2): 127–37. PMID 9441573.
  7. ↑ Wright CB, Sacco RL, Rundek TR; et al. (2006). "Interleukin-6 is associated with cognitive function: the Northern Manhattan Study". 15 (1): 34–38. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2005.08.009. PMID 16501663.
  8. ↑ Elenkov IJ, Iezzoni DG, Daly A, Harris AG, Chrousos GP (2005). "Cytokine dysregulation, inflammation and well-being". Neuroimmunomodulation. 12 (5): 255–69. doi:10.1159/000087104. PMID 16166805.
  9. ↑ Calcagni E, Elenkov I (2006). "Stress system activity, innate and T helper cytokines, and susceptibility to immune-related diseases". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1069: 62–76. doi:10.1196/annals.1351.006. PMID 16855135.
  10. ↑ Gasse T, Murr C, Meyersbach P; et al. (1994). "Neopterin production and tryptophan degradation in acute Lyme neuroborreliosis versus late Lyme encephalopathy". European journal of clinical chemistry and clinical biochemistry : journal of the Forum of European Clinical Chemistry Societies. 32 (9): 685–9. PMID 7865624.
  11. ↑ Zajkowska J, Grygorczuk S, Kondrusik M, Pancewicz S, Hermanowska-Szpakowicz T (2006). "New aspects of pathogenesis of Lyme borreliosis". Przegla̧d epidemiologiczny (in Polish). 60 Suppl 1: 167–70. PMID 16909797.
  12. ↑ Kubera M, Lin AH, Kenis G, Bosmans E, van Bockstaele D, Maes M (2001). "Anti-Inflammatory effects of antidepressants through suppression of the interferon-gamma/interleukin-10 production ratio". Journal of clinical psychopharmacology. 21 (2): 199–206. PMID 11270917.
  13. ↑ Diamond M, Kelly JP, Connor TJ (2006). "Antidepressants suppress production of the Th1 cytokine interferon-gamma, independent of monoamine transporter blockade". European neuropsychopharmacology : the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology. 16 (7): 481–90. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.11.011. PMID 16388933.
  14. ↑ Taylor R, Simpson I (2005). "Review of treatment options for Lyme borreliosis". J Chemother. 17 Suppl 2: 3–16. PMID 16315580.
  15. ↑ Pavia C (2003). "Current and novel therapies for Lyme disease". Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 12 (6): 1003–16. PMID 12783604.
  16. ↑ Schardt FW (2004). "Clinical effects of fluconazole in patients with neuroborreliosis". Eur. J. Med. Res. 9 (7): 334–6. PMID 15337633.
  17. ↑ Lubke LL, Garon CF (1997). "The antimicrobial agent melittin exhibits powerful in vitro inhibitory effects on the Lyme disease spirochete". Clin. Infect. Dis. 25 Suppl 1: S48–51. PMID 9233664.
  18. ↑ Jarefors S, Janefjord CK, Forsberg P, Jenmalm MC, Ekerfelt C (2007). "Decreased up-regulation of the interleukin-12Rbeta2-chain and interferon-gamma secretion and increased number of forkhead box P3-expressing cells in patients with a history of chronic Lyme borreliosis compared with asymptomatic Borrelia-exposed individuals". Clin. Exp. Immunol. 147 (1): 18–27. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2006.03245.x. PMID 17177959.
  19. ↑ Ramesh G, Philipp MT (2005). "Pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1, Erk2, and p38 in the response of astrocytes to Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins". Neurosci. Lett. 384 (1–2): 112–6. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.04.069. PMID 15893422.
  20. ↑ Singh SK, Girschick HJ (2006). "Toll-like receptors in Borrelia burgdorferi-induced inflammation". Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12 (8): 705–17. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01440.x. PMID 16842565.
  21. ↑ Conflicts of Interest in Lyme Disease: Treatment, Laboratory Testing, and Vaccination, Lyme Disease Association Inc., 2001
  22. ↑ Biocontainment lab planned at Primate Center, PONTCHARTRAIN NEWSPAPERS COVINGTON, St.Tammany News, www.newsbanner.com Dec. 13, 2004
  23. ↑ "Lyme Disease is Biowarfare Issue" by Elena Cooke, published/discussed by Dave Emory, WFMU Talk Show Host, 2007 http://ftrsupplemental.blogspot.com/2007/02/history-of-lyme-disease-as-bioweapon.html
  24. ↑ Washington Post January 22, 2005
  25. ↑ NYStar News Publication of the New York State Office of Science, Technology and Academic Research, August 2004
  26. ↑ UCI Medical Centre, June 1, 2005
  27. ↑ McSweegan, Edward , "Deliberate Release", published September 20, 2002 by 1st Books Library, ISBN-10: 1403343535.


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