Lymphoid leukemia: Difference between revisions

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==Pathophysiology==
==Pathophysiology==
===Physiology===
All lymphocytes originate from a common lymphoid progenitor cell known as a lymphoblast, before differentiating into their distinct lymphocyte types. The formation of lymphocytes is known as [[lymphopoiesis]]. [[B cells]] mature into B lymphocytes in the bone marrow, while [[T cells]] migrate to and mature in the thymus. Following maturation, the lymphocytes enter the circulation and peripheral lymphoid organs, where they survey for invading pathogens and cancer cells. The lymphocytes involved in adaptive immunity (B and T cells) differentiate further after exposure to an antigen, which occurs in the lymph nodes during antigen presentation from the [[dendritic cells]].<ref name="pmid30039426">{{cite journal |vauthors=van de Loosdrecht AA, van Wetering S, Santegoets SJAM, Singh SK, Eeltink CM, den Hartog Y, Koppes M, Kaspers J, Ossenkoppele GJ, Kruisbeek AM, de Gruijl TD |title=A novel allogeneic off-the-shelf dendritic cell vaccine for post-remission treatment of elderly patients with acute myeloid leukemia |journal=Cancer Immunol. Immunother. |volume=67 |issue=10 |pages=1505–1518 |date=October 2018 |pmid=30039426 |pmc=6182404 |doi=10.1007/s00262-018-2198-9 |url=}}</ref>  The fully differentiated B and T cells are specific to the presented antigen and work to defend the body against pathogens associated with that antigen.<ref name="pmid28411378">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khoury HJ, Collins RH, Blum W, Stiff PS, Elias L, Lebkowski JS, Reddy A, Nishimoto KP, Sen D, Wirth ED, Case CC, DiPersio JF |title=Immune responses and long-term disease recurrence status after telomerase-based dendritic cell immunotherapy in patients with acute myeloid leukemia |journal=Cancer |volume=123 |issue=16 |pages=3061–3072 |date=August 2017 |pmid=28411378 |doi=10.1002/cncr.30696 |url=}}</ref>


*The normal physiology of lymphoid tissues can be understood as follows:<ref name="pmid17067945">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cesta MF |title=Normal structure, function, and histology of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue |journal=Toxicol Pathol |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=599–608 |date=2006 |pmid=17067945 |doi=10.1080/01926230600865531 |url=}}</ref>
*Lymphoid tissues are subdivided into primary and secondary lymphoid organs.
**The primary lymphoid tissues responsible for the initial generation of [[B and T lymphocytes]] are the bone marrow and thymus, respectively.
**Secondary lymphoid tissues include lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, gut-associated lymphoid tissue ([[GALT]]), bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue ( [[BALT]]). Within these lymphoid organs, B and T lymphocytes tend to home to different domains, leading to the segregation of B and T cells. Specifically, B cells mainly localize to follicles, whereas T cells mainly localize to [[interfollicular areas]]. Non-lymphoid cells (eg, dendritic cells, monocytes/macrophages, endothelial cells, and follicular dendritic cells) contribute to the formation of these distinct microenvironments, within which specific cell-cell interactions occur that are required for the generation of cellular and humoral immune responses.<ref name="pmid20154733">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bertrand JY, Chi NC, Santoso B, Teng S, Stainier DY, Traver D |title=Haematopoietic stem cells derive directly from aortic endothelium during development |journal=Nature |volume=464 |issue=7285 |pages=108–11 |date=March 2010 |pmid=20154733 |pmc=2858358 |doi=10.1038/nature08738 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17318232">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dorshkind K, Montecino-Rodriguez E |title=Fetal B-cell lymphopoiesis and the emergence of B-1-cell potential |journal=Nat. Rev. Immunol. |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=213–9 |date=March 2007 |pmid=17318232 |doi=10.1038/nri2019 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23940259">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vossenkämper A, Blair PA, Safinia N, Fraser LD, Das L, Sanders TJ, Stagg AJ, Sanderson JD, Taylor K, Chang F, Choong LM, D'Cruz DP, Macdonald TT, Lombardi G, Spencer J |title=A role for gut-associated lymphoid tissue in shaping the human B cell repertoire |journal=J. Exp. Med. |volume=210 |issue=9 |pages=1665–74 |date=August 2013 |pmid=23940259 |pmc=3754866 |doi=10.1084/jem.20122465 |url=}}</ref>
===Pathogenesis===
*It is understood that lymphoid leukemia is the result of overproduction of cells is caused by either activation or inactivation of genes.<ref name="pmid28399885">{{cite journal |vauthors=Quijada-Álamo M, Hernández-Sánchez M, Robledo C, Hernández-Sánchez JM, Benito R, Montaño A, Rodríguez-Vicente AE, Quwaider D, Martín AÁ, García-Álvarez M, Vidal-Manceñido MJ, Ferrer-Garrido G, Delgado-Beltrán MP, Galende J, Rodríguez JN, Martín-Núñez G, Alonso JM, García de Coca A, Queizán JA, Sierra M, Aguilar C, Kohlmann A, Hernández JÁ, González M, Hernández-Rivas JM |title=Next-generation sequencing and FISH studies reveal the appearance of gene mutations and chromosomal abnormalities in hematopoietic progenitors in chronic lymphocytic leukemia |journal=J Hematol Oncol |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=83 |date=April 2017 |pmid=28399885 |pmc=5387353 |doi=10.1186/s13045-017-0450-y |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10577857">{{cite journal |vauthors=Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Diebold J, Flandrin G, Muller-Hermelink HK, Vardiman J, Lister TA, Bloomfield CD |title=World Health Organization classification of neoplastic diseases of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues: report of the Clinical Advisory Committee meeting-Airlie House, Virginia, November 1997 |journal=J. Clin. Oncol. |volume=17 |issue=12 |pages=3835–49 |date=December 1999 |pmid=10577857 |doi=10.1200/JCO.1999.17.12.3835 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23987584">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang S, Kipps TJ |title=The pathogenesis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia |journal=Annu Rev Pathol |volume=9 |issue= |pages=103–18 |date=2014 |pmid=23987584 |doi=10.1146/annurev-pathol-020712-163955 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid30045301">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ge H, Wu X, Shen J, Chen J, Chen Y, Zhang Y |title=A case report of extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma in patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia |journal=Medicine (Baltimore) |volume=97 |issue=30 |pages=e11619 |date=July 2018 |pmid=30045301 |pmc=6078727 |doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000011619 |url=}}</ref>
*Several factors, such as chromosomal [[translocations]] as well as genetic or epigenetic alterations, are involved in [[leukemogenesis]].
*Abnormal [[methylation]] of DNA and [[histone]] modifications are important mechanisms in tumor suppressor silencing, contributing to leukemogenesis along with genetic alterations.<ref name="pmid19718392">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kondo Y |title=Epigenetic cross-talk between DNA methylation and histone modifications in human cancers |journal=Yonsei Med. J. |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=455–63 |date=August 2009 |pmid=19718392 |pmc=2730606 |doi=10.3349/ymj.2009.50.4.455 |url=}}</ref>
*The activation of [[oncogenes]] involves genetic changes to cellular [[protooncogenes]].
*Three genetic mechanisms activate oncogenes in human neoplasms,these mechanisms result in either an alteration of protooncogene structure or an increase in protooncogene expression:
**Mutation
**[[Gene amplification]] 
**Chromosome rearrangements
==Genetics==
*Activation or/and inactivation of genes plays an important role in the pathogenesis and prognosis of lymphoid leukemia.
*Epigenetic and genetic alterations are two mechanisms in leukemia.
*Abnormal methylation of DNA and histone modifications are important mechanisms in tumor suppressor silencing, contributing to leukemogenesis along with genetic alterations.
*Epigenetic mechanisms are the most prevalent inactivation ones in lymphoid leukemia and involve the genes implicated in several cellular mechanisms, including gene expression and transcription, cell- cycle regulation and [[apoptosis]].<ref name="pmid29125235">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gladkikh AA, Potashnikova DM, Tatarskiy V, Yastrebova M, Khamidullina A, Barteneva N, Vorobjev I |title=Comparison of the mRNA expression profile of B-cell receptor components in normal CD5-high B-lymphocytes and chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a key role of ZAP70 |journal=Cancer Med |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=2984–2997 |date=December 2017 |pmid=29125235 |pmc=5727315 |doi=10.1002/cam4.1257 |url=}}</ref>
Genes involved in the pathogenesis of lymphoid leukemia include:
*Inactivation genes
**IKZF1(associated with a poor outcome in B-ALL)<ref name="pmid30457697">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hashiguchi J, Onozawa M, Okada K, Amano T, Hatanaka KC, Nishihara H, Sato N, Teshima T |title=Quantitative detection of IKZF1 deletion by digital PCR in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia |journal=Int J Lab Hematol |volume= |issue= |pages= |date=November 2018 |pmid=30457697 |doi=10.1111/ijlh.12945 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19129520">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mullighan CG, Su X, Zhang J, Radtke I, Phillips LA, Miller CB, Ma J, Liu W, Cheng C, Schulman BA, Harvey RC, Chen IM, Clifford RJ, Carroll WL, Reaman G, Bowman WP, Devidas M, Gerhard DS, Yang W, Relling MV, Shurtleff SA, Campana D, Borowitz MJ, Pui CH, Smith M, Hunger SP, Willman CL, Downing JR |title=Deletion of IKZF1 and prognosis in acute lymphoblastic leukemia |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=360 |issue=5 |pages=470–80 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19129520 |pmc=2674612 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa0808253 |url=}}</ref>
**Wnt inhibitors                     
**Gene3
**CDKN2A<ref name="pmid29463802">{{cite journal |vauthors=Herling CD, Abedpour N, Weiss J, Schmitt A, Jachimowicz RD, Merkel O, Cartolano M, Oberbeck S, Mayer P, Berg V, Thomalla D, Kutsch N, Stiefelhagen M, Cramer P, Wendtner CM, Persigehl T, Saleh A, Altmüller J, Nürnberg P, Pallasch C, Achter V, Lang U, Eichhorst B, Castiglione R, Schäfer SC, Büttner R, Kreuzer KA, Reinhardt HC, Hallek M, Frenzel LP, Peifer M |title=Clonal dynamics towards the development of venetoclax resistance in chronic lymphocytic leukemia |journal=Nat Commun |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=727 |date=February 2018 |pmid=29463802 |pmc=5820258 |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-03170-7 |url=}}</ref>
**
*
==Associated Conditions==
Conditions associated with lymphoid leukemia include:<ref name="pmid29526963">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ito Y, Makita S, Maeshima AM, Hatta S, Suzuki T, Yuda S, Fukuhara S, Munakata W, Suzuki T, Maruyama D, Izutsu K |title=Paraneoplastic Pemphigus Associated with B-cell Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treated with Ibrutinib and Rituximab |journal=Intern. Med. |volume=57 |issue=16 |pages=2395–2398 |date=August 2018 |pmid=29526963 |pmc=6148183 |doi=10.2169/internalmedicine.0578-17 |url=}}</ref>
*[[Anemia]]
*Other cancers such as [[melanoma]]
*Lymph node enlargement
*Low grade fevers
*Unexplained weight loss
*Night sweats
*Enlarged spleen or liver
*Infections of the skin, lungs, kidneys or other sites, as result of low immunoglobulin levels and decreased neutrophil counts.
*Fatigue
*Shortness of breath during normal physical activity


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}

Revision as of 16:18, 5 December 2018


Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Nima Nasiri, M.D.[2]

For patient information, click here

Lymphoid leukemia
ICD-10 C91
ICD-9 204
MeSH D007945

Lymphoid leukemia Main Page

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Patient Information

Overview

Classification

Pathophysiology

Differentiating Lymphoid Lymphoma


Overview

Classification

The World Health Organization (WHO) classifications and French-American-British (FAB) for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) are provided below.[1] [2][3][4]

  • WHO classification of acute lymphoblastic leukemia
    • B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma:
      • B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma, NOS
    • B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with recurrent genetic abnormalities:
      • B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with t(9;22)(q34;q11.2), BCR-ABL1[5]
      • B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with t(v;11q23); MLL rearranged[6]
      • B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with t(12;21)(p13;q22) TEL-AML1 (ETV6-RUNX1)[7]
      • B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with hyperdiploidy
      • B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with hypodiploidy[8]
      • B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with t(5;14)(q31;q32) IL3-IGH
      • B lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with t(1;19)(q23;p13.3) TCF3-PBX1
    • T lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma:
      • FAB classification of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (for historical purposes):[9]
        • ALL-L1: Small cells with homogeneous nuclear chromatin, a regular nuclear shape, small or no nucleoli, scanty cytoplasm, and mild to moderate basophilia
        • ALL-L2: Large, heterogeneous cells with variable nuclear chromatin, an irregular nuclear shape, 1 or more nucleoli, a variable amount of cytoplasm, and variable basophilia
        • ALL-L3: Large, homogeneous cells with fine, stippled chromatin; regular nuclei; prominent nucleoli; and abundant, deeply basophilic cytoplasm. The most distinguishing feature is prominent cytoplasmic vacuolation.

Pathophysiology

Physiology

All lymphocytes originate from a common lymphoid progenitor cell known as a lymphoblast, before differentiating into their distinct lymphocyte types. The formation of lymphocytes is known as lymphopoiesis. B cells mature into B lymphocytes in the bone marrow, while T cells migrate to and mature in the thymus. Following maturation, the lymphocytes enter the circulation and peripheral lymphoid organs, where they survey for invading pathogens and cancer cells. The lymphocytes involved in adaptive immunity (B and T cells) differentiate further after exposure to an antigen, which occurs in the lymph nodes during antigen presentation from the dendritic cells.[10] The fully differentiated B and T cells are specific to the presented antigen and work to defend the body against pathogens associated with that antigen.[11]

  • The normal physiology of lymphoid tissues can be understood as follows:[12]
  • Lymphoid tissues are subdivided into primary and secondary lymphoid organs.
    • The primary lymphoid tissues responsible for the initial generation of B and T lymphocytes are the bone marrow and thymus, respectively.
    • Secondary lymphoid tissues include lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue ( BALT). Within these lymphoid organs, B and T lymphocytes tend to home to different domains, leading to the segregation of B and T cells. Specifically, B cells mainly localize to follicles, whereas T cells mainly localize to interfollicular areas. Non-lymphoid cells (eg, dendritic cells, monocytes/macrophages, endothelial cells, and follicular dendritic cells) contribute to the formation of these distinct microenvironments, within which specific cell-cell interactions occur that are required for the generation of cellular and humoral immune responses.[13][14][15]

Pathogenesis

  • It is understood that lymphoid leukemia is the result of overproduction of cells is caused by either activation or inactivation of genes.[16][17][18][19]
  • Several factors, such as chromosomal translocations as well as genetic or epigenetic alterations, are involved in leukemogenesis.
  • Abnormal methylation of DNA and histone modifications are important mechanisms in tumor suppressor silencing, contributing to leukemogenesis along with genetic alterations.[20]
  • The activation of oncogenes involves genetic changes to cellular protooncogenes.
  • Three genetic mechanisms activate oncogenes in human neoplasms,these mechanisms result in either an alteration of protooncogene structure or an increase in protooncogene expression:

Genetics

  • Activation or/and inactivation of genes plays an important role in the pathogenesis and prognosis of lymphoid leukemia.
  • Epigenetic and genetic alterations are two mechanisms in leukemia.
  • Abnormal methylation of DNA and histone modifications are important mechanisms in tumor suppressor silencing, contributing to leukemogenesis along with genetic alterations.
  • Epigenetic mechanisms are the most prevalent inactivation ones in lymphoid leukemia and involve the genes implicated in several cellular mechanisms, including gene expression and transcription, cell- cycle regulation and apoptosis.[21]


Genes involved in the pathogenesis of lymphoid leukemia include:

  • Inactivation genes
    • IKZF1(associated with a poor outcome in B-ALL)[22][23]
    • Wnt inhibitors
    • Gene3
    • CDKN2A[24]

Associated Conditions

Conditions associated with lymphoid leukemia include:[25]

  • Anemia
  • Other cancers such as melanoma
  • Lymph node enlargement
  • Low grade fevers
  • Unexplained weight loss
  • Night sweats
  • Enlarged spleen or liver
  • Infections of the skin, lungs, kidneys or other sites, as result of low immunoglobulin levels and decreased neutrophil counts.
  • Fatigue
  • Shortness of breath during normal physical activity

References

  1. ↑ Swerdlow SH, Campo E, Pileri SA, Harris NL, Stein H, Siebert R, Advani R, Ghielmini M, Salles GA, Zelenetz AD, Jaffe ES (May 2016). "The 2016 revision of the World Health Organization classification of lymphoid neoplasms". Blood. 127 (20): 2375–90. doi:10.1182/blood-2016-01-643569. PMC 4874220. PMID 26980727.
  2. ↑ Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Diebold J, Flandrin G, Muller-Hermelink HK, Vardiman J, Lister TA, Bloomfield CD (December 1999). "The World Health Organization classification of neoplastic diseases of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues. Report of the Clinical Advisory Committee meeting, Airlie House, Virginia, November, 1997". Ann. Oncol. 10 (12): 1419–32. PMID 10643532.
  3. ↑ Makar AB, McMartin KE, Palese M, Tephly TR, Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G, Anke H, Spector LB (June 1975). "Formate assay in body fluids: application in methanol poisoning". Biochem Med. 13 (2): 117–26. PMC 5922622. PMID 1.
  4. ↑ Wang Y, Miller S, Roulston D, Bixby D, Shao L (July 2016). "Genome-Wide Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism Array Analysis Improves Prognostication of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia/Lymphoma". J Mol Diagn. 18 (4): 595–603. doi:10.1016/j.jmoldx.2016.03.004. PMID 27161658.
  5. ↑ Goud TM, Al Salmani KK, Al Harasi SM, Al Musalhi M, Wasifuddin SM, Rajab A (2015). "Importance of FISH combined with Morphology, Immunophenotype and Cytogenetic Analysis of Childhood/ Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia in Omani Patients". Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 16 (16): 7343–50. PMID 26514535.
  6. ↑ Nagayama J, Tomizawa D, Koh K, Nagatoshi Y, Hotta N, Kishimoto T, Takahashi Y, Kuno T, Sugita K, Sato T, Kato K, Ogawa A, Nakahata T, Mizutani S, Horibe K, Ishii E (June 2006). "Infants with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and a germline MLL gene are highly curable with use of chemotherapy alone: results from the Japan Infant Leukemia Study Group". Blood. 107 (12): 4663–5. doi:10.1182/blood-2005-11-4728. PMID 16478880.
  7. ↑ Peter A, Heiden T, Taube T, Körner G, Seeger K (November 2009). "Interphase FISH on TEL/AML1 positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia relapses--analysis of clinical relevance of additional TEL and AML1 copy number changes". Eur. J. Haematol. 83 (5): 420–32. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0609.2009.01315.x. PMID 19594616.
  8. ↑ Greipp PR, Trendle MC, Leong T, Oken MM, Kay NE, Van Ness B, Kyle RA (September 1999). "Is flow cytometric DNA content hypodiploidy prognostic in multiple myeloma?". Leuk. Lymphoma. 35 (1–2): 83–9. doi:10.3109/10428199909145707. PMID 10512165.
  9. ↑ Canaani J, Beohou E, Labopin M, Socié G, Huynh A, Volin L, Cornelissen J, Milpied N, Gedde-Dahl T, Deconinck E, Fegueux N, Blaise D, Mohty M, Nagler A (April 2017). "Impact of FAB classification on predicting outcome in acute myeloid leukemia, not otherwise specified, patients undergoing allogeneic stem cell transplantation in CR1: An analysis of 1690 patients from the acute leukemia working party of EBMT". Am. J. Hematol. 92 (4): 344–350. doi:10.1002/ajh.24640. PMID 28052366.
  10. ↑ van de Loosdrecht AA, van Wetering S, Santegoets S, Singh SK, Eeltink CM, den Hartog Y, Koppes M, Kaspers J, Ossenkoppele GJ, Kruisbeek AM, de Gruijl TD (October 2018). "A novel allogeneic off-the-shelf dendritic cell vaccine for post-remission treatment of elderly patients with acute myeloid leukemia". Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 67 (10): 1505–1518. doi:10.1007/s00262-018-2198-9. PMC 6182404. PMID 30039426. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  11. ↑ Khoury HJ, Collins RH, Blum W, Stiff PS, Elias L, Lebkowski JS, Reddy A, Nishimoto KP, Sen D, Wirth ED, Case CC, DiPersio JF (August 2017). "Immune responses and long-term disease recurrence status after telomerase-based dendritic cell immunotherapy in patients with acute myeloid leukemia". Cancer. 123 (16): 3061–3072. doi:10.1002/cncr.30696. PMID 28411378.
  12. ↑ Cesta MF (2006). "Normal structure, function, and histology of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue". Toxicol Pathol. 34 (5): 599–608. doi:10.1080/01926230600865531. PMID 17067945.
  13. ↑ Bertrand JY, Chi NC, Santoso B, Teng S, Stainier DY, Traver D (March 2010). "Haematopoietic stem cells derive directly from aortic endothelium during development". Nature. 464 (7285): 108–11. doi:10.1038/nature08738. PMC 2858358. PMID 20154733.
  14. ↑ Dorshkind K, Montecino-Rodriguez E (March 2007). "Fetal B-cell lymphopoiesis and the emergence of B-1-cell potential". Nat. Rev. Immunol. 7 (3): 213–9. doi:10.1038/nri2019. PMID 17318232.
  15. ↑ Vossenkämper A, Blair PA, Safinia N, Fraser LD, Das L, Sanders TJ, Stagg AJ, Sanderson JD, Taylor K, Chang F, Choong LM, D'Cruz DP, Macdonald TT, Lombardi G, Spencer J (August 2013). "A role for gut-associated lymphoid tissue in shaping the human B cell repertoire". J. Exp. Med. 210 (9): 1665–74. doi:10.1084/jem.20122465. PMC 3754866. PMID 23940259.
  16. ↑ Quijada-Álamo M, Hernández-Sánchez M, Robledo C, Hernández-Sánchez JM, Benito R, Montaño A, Rodríguez-Vicente AE, Quwaider D, Martín AÁ, García-Álvarez M, Vidal-Manceñido MJ, Ferrer-Garrido G, Delgado-Beltrán MP, Galende J, Rodríguez JN, Martín-Núñez G, Alonso JM, García de Coca A, Queizán JA, Sierra M, Aguilar C, Kohlmann A, Hernández JÁ, González M, Hernández-Rivas JM (April 2017). "Next-generation sequencing and FISH studies reveal the appearance of gene mutations and chromosomal abnormalities in hematopoietic progenitors in chronic lymphocytic leukemia". J Hematol Oncol. 10 (1): 83. doi:10.1186/s13045-017-0450-y. PMC 5387353. PMID 28399885.
  17. ↑ Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Diebold J, Flandrin G, Muller-Hermelink HK, Vardiman J, Lister TA, Bloomfield CD (December 1999). "World Health Organization classification of neoplastic diseases of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues: report of the Clinical Advisory Committee meeting-Airlie House, Virginia, November 1997". J. Clin. Oncol. 17 (12): 3835–49. doi:10.1200/JCO.1999.17.12.3835. PMID 10577857.
  18. ↑ Zhang S, Kipps TJ (2014). "The pathogenesis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia". Annu Rev Pathol. 9: 103–18. doi:10.1146/annurev-pathol-020712-163955. PMID 23987584.
  19. ↑ Ge H, Wu X, Shen J, Chen J, Chen Y, Zhang Y (July 2018). "A case report of extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma in patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia". Medicine (Baltimore). 97 (30): e11619. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000011619. PMC 6078727. PMID 30045301.
  20. ↑ Kondo Y (August 2009). "Epigenetic cross-talk between DNA methylation and histone modifications in human cancers". Yonsei Med. J. 50 (4): 455–63. doi:10.3349/ymj.2009.50.4.455. PMC 2730606. PMID 19718392.
  21. ↑ Gladkikh AA, Potashnikova DM, Tatarskiy V, Yastrebova M, Khamidullina A, Barteneva N, Vorobjev I (December 2017). "Comparison of the mRNA expression profile of B-cell receptor components in normal CD5-high B-lymphocytes and chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a key role of ZAP70". Cancer Med. 6 (12): 2984–2997. doi:10.1002/cam4.1257. PMC 5727315. PMID 29125235.
  22. ↑ Hashiguchi J, Onozawa M, Okada K, Amano T, Hatanaka KC, Nishihara H, Sato N, Teshima T (November 2018). "Quantitative detection of IKZF1 deletion by digital PCR in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia". Int J Lab Hematol. doi:10.1111/ijlh.12945. PMID 30457697.
  23. ↑ Mullighan CG, Su X, Zhang J, Radtke I, Phillips LA, Miller CB, Ma J, Liu W, Cheng C, Schulman BA, Harvey RC, Chen IM, Clifford RJ, Carroll WL, Reaman G, Bowman WP, Devidas M, Gerhard DS, Yang W, Relling MV, Shurtleff SA, Campana D, Borowitz MJ, Pui CH, Smith M, Hunger SP, Willman CL, Downing JR (January 2009). "Deletion of IKZF1 and prognosis in acute lymphoblastic leukemia". N. Engl. J. Med. 360 (5): 470–80. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0808253. PMC 2674612. PMID 19129520.
  24. ↑ Herling CD, Abedpour N, Weiss J, Schmitt A, Jachimowicz RD, Merkel O, Cartolano M, Oberbeck S, Mayer P, Berg V, Thomalla D, Kutsch N, Stiefelhagen M, Cramer P, Wendtner CM, Persigehl T, Saleh A, Altmüller J, Nürnberg P, Pallasch C, Achter V, Lang U, Eichhorst B, Castiglione R, Schäfer SC, Büttner R, Kreuzer KA, Reinhardt HC, Hallek M, Frenzel LP, Peifer M (February 2018). "Clonal dynamics towards the development of venetoclax resistance in chronic lymphocytic leukemia". Nat Commun. 9 (1): 727. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03170-7. PMC 5820258. PMID 29463802.
  25. ↑ Ito Y, Makita S, Maeshima AM, Hatta S, Suzuki T, Yuda S, Fukuhara S, Munakata W, Suzuki T, Maruyama D, Izutsu K (August 2018). "Paraneoplastic Pemphigus Associated with B-cell Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treated with Ibrutinib and Rituximab". Intern. Med. 57 (16): 2395–2398. doi:10.2169/internalmedicine.0578-17. PMC 6148183. PMID 29526963.
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