Hepatopulmonary syndrome MRI: Difference between revisions

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==MRI==
==MRI==


There are no MRI findings associated with hepatopulmonary syndrome. However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of cirrhosis, which include:
There are no MRI findings associated with hepatopulmonary syndrome. However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of cirrhosis, which include:<ref name="pmid104708852">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N |title=Viral-induced cirrhosis: grading of severity using MR imaging |journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol |volume=173 |issue=3 |pages=591–6 |year=1999 |pmid=10470885 |doi=10.2214/ajr.173.3.10470885 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9129412">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ernst O, Sergent G, Bonvarlet P, Canva-Delcambre V, Paris JC, L'Herminé C |title=Hepatic iron overload: diagnosis and quantification with MR imaging |journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol |volume=168 |issue=5 |pages=1205–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9129412 |doi=10.2214/ajr.168.5.9129412 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7972774">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gandon Y, Guyader D, Heautot JF, Reda MI, Yaouanq J, Buhé T, Brissot P, Carsin M, Deugnier Y |title=Hemochromatosis: diagnosis and quantification of liver iron with gradient-echo MR imaging |journal=Radiology |volume=193 |issue=2 |pages=533–8 |year=1994 |pmid=7972774 |doi=10.1148/radiology.193.2.7972774 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid103525972">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Gabata T, Hussain SM |title=Expanded gallbladder fossa: simple MR imaging sign of cirrhosis |journal=Radiology |volume=211 |issue=3 |pages=723–6 |year=1999 |pmid=10352597 |doi=10.1148/radiology.211.3.r99ma31723 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid96098972">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Outwater EK, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N |title=Progressive viral-induced cirrhosis: serial MR imaging findings and clinical correlation |journal=Radiology |volume=207 |issue=3 |pages=729–35 |year=1998 |pmid=9609897 |doi=10.1148/radiology.207.3.9609897 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid82736432">{{cite journal |vauthors=Finn JP, Kane RA, Edelman RR, Jenkins RL, Lewis WD, Muller M, Longmaid HE |title=Imaging of the portal venous system in patients with cirrhosis: MR angiography vs duplex Doppler sonography |journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol |volume=161 |issue=5 |pages=989–94 |year=1993 |pmid=8273643 |doi=10.2214/ajr.161.5.8273643 |url=}}</ref>


*Hepatocellular carcinoma
*Diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
*[Complication 2]
*Differentiates [[Regeneration|regenerating]] or [[Dysplasia|dysplastic]] [[Nodule (medicine)|nodules]] and [[hepatocellular carcinoma]] <ref name="pmid10405746">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bonkovsky HL, Rubin RB, Cable EE, Davidoff A, Rijcken TH, Stark DD |title=Hepatic iron concentration: noninvasive estimation by means of MR imaging techniques |journal=Radiology |volume=212 |issue=1 |pages=227–34 |year=1999 |pmid=10405746 |doi=10.1148/radiology.212.1.r99jl35227 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid104708852" /><ref name="pmid11584240">{{cite journal |vauthors=Choi D, Kim SH, Lim JH, Cho JM, Lee WJ, Lee SJ, Lim HK |title=Detection of hepatocellular carcinoma: combined T2-weighted and dynamic gadolinium-enhanced MRI versus combined CT during arterial portography and CT hepatic arteriography |journal=J Comput Assist Tomogr |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=777–85 |year=2001 |pmid=11584240 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16244259">{{cite journal |vauthors=Qayyum A, Goh JS, Kakar S, Yeh BM, Merriman RB, Coakley FV |title=Accuracy of liver fat quantification at MR imaging: comparison of out-of-phase gradient-echo and fat-saturated fast spin-echo techniques--initial experience |journal=Radiology |volume=237 |issue=2 |pages=507–11 |year=2005 |pmid=16244259 |doi=10.1148/radiol.2372040539 |url=}}</ref>
*[Complication 3]
*[[Portal vein]] [[thrombosis]] (MR angiography)<ref name="pmid8273643">{{cite journal |author=Finn JP, Kane RA, Edelman RR, Jenkins RL, Lewis WD, Muller M, Longmaid HE |title=Imaging of the portal venous system in patients with cirrhosis: MR angiography vs duplex Doppler sonography |journal=[[AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology]] |volume=161 |issue=5 |pages=989–94 |year=1993 |pmid=8273643 |doi= |url=http://www.ajronline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8273643 |accessdate=2012-09-06}}</ref>
*[[Iron]] overload (decreased signal intensity on MRI)
*Fibrosis, and cirrhosis severity.<ref name="pmid10470885">{{cite journal |author=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N |title=Viral-induced cirrhosis: grading of severity using MR imaging |journal=[[AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology]] |volume=173 |issue=3 |pages=591–6 |year=1999 |pmid=10470885 |doi= |url=http://www.ajronline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10470885 |accessdate=2012-09-06}}</ref><ref name="pmid10352597">{{cite journal |author=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Gabata T, Hussain SM |title=Expanded gallbladder fossa: simple MR imaging sign of cirrhosis |journal=[[Radiology]] |volume=211 |issue=3 |pages=723–6 |year=1999 |pmid=10352597 |doi= |url=http://radiology.rsnajnls.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10352597 |accessdate=2012-09-06}}</ref><ref name="pmid9609897">{{cite journal |author=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Outwater EK, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N |title=Progressive viral-induced cirrhosis: serial MR imaging findings and clinical correlation |journal=[[Radiology]] |volume=207 |issue=3 |pages=729–35 |year=1998 |pmid=9609897 |doi= |url=http://radiology.rsnajnls.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9609897 |accessdate=2012-09-06}}</ref>


==Overview==
*[[Portal hypertension]]:<ref name="ProcopetBerzigotti2017">{{cite journal|last1=Procopet|first1=Bogdan|last2=Berzigotti|first2=Annalisa|title=Diagnosis of cirrhosis and portal hypertension: imaging, non-invasive markers of fibrosis and liver biopsy|journal=Gastroenterology Report|volume=5|issue=2|year=2017|pages=79–89|issn=2052-0034|doi=10.1093/gastro/gox012}}</ref><ref name="AagaardJensen1982">{{cite journal|last1=Aagaard|first1=J|last2=Jensen|first2=LI|last3=Sorensen|first3=TI|last4=Christensen|first4=U|last5=Burcharth|first5=F|title=Recanalized umbilical vein in portal hypertension|journal=American Journal of Roentgenology|volume=139|issue=6|year=1982|pages=1107–1110|issn=0361-803X|doi=10.2214/ajr.139.6.1107}}</ref><ref name="ChoPatel1995">{{cite journal|last1=Cho|first1=K C|last2=Patel|first2=Y D|last3=Wachsberg|first3=R H|last4=Seeff|first4=J|title=Varices in portal hypertension: evaluation with CT.|journal=RadioGraphics|volume=15|issue=3|year=1995|pages=609–622|issn=0271-5333|doi=10.1148/radiographics.15.3.7624566}}</ref><ref name="BandaliMirakhur2017">{{cite journal|last1=Bandali|first1=Murad Feroz|last2=Mirakhur|first2=Anirudh|last3=Lee|first3=Edward Wolfgang|last4=Ferris|first4=Mollie Clarke|last5=Sadler|first5=David James|last6=Gray|first6=Robin Ritchie|last7=Wong|first7=Jason Kam|title=Portal hypertension: Imaging of portosystemic collateral pathways and associated image-guided therapy|journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology|volume=23|issue=10|year=2017|pages=1735|issn=1007-9327|doi=10.3748/wjg.v23.i10.1735}}</ref>
The use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as a diagnostic test for cirrhosis is uncertain. MRI differentiates [[Regeneration|regenerating]] or [[Dysplasia|dysplastic]] [[Nodule (medicine)|nodules]] and [[hepatocellular carcinoma]]. MRI is best used as a follow-up study to determine whether [[Lesion|lesions]] have changed in appearance and size. MRI may accurately diagnose cirrhosis and determines disease severity. Decreased signal intensity on MRI may also reveal an [[iron]] overload and provides an estimate of the [[Liver|hepatic]] [[iron]] concentration. [[Magnetic resonance angiography|MR angiography]] is more sensitive than [[ultrasonography]] in diagnosing complications of cirrhosis such as [[portal vein]] [[thrombosis]].
**[[Cirrhosis|Cirrhotic liver]], as shrinkage and atrophy in liver
 
==MRI==
Role of MRI in cirrhosis:<ref name="pmid10405746">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bonkovsky HL, Rubin RB, Cable EE, Davidoff A, Rijcken TH, Stark DD |title=Hepatic iron concentration: noninvasive estimation by means of MR imaging techniques |journal=Radiology |volume=212 |issue=1 |pages=227–34 |year=1999 |pmid=10405746 |doi=10.1148/radiology.212.1.r99jl35227 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid104708852">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N |title=Viral-induced cirrhosis: grading of severity using MR imaging |journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol |volume=173 |issue=3 |pages=591–6 |year=1999 |pmid=10470885 |doi=10.2214/ajr.173.3.10470885 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9129412">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ernst O, Sergent G, Bonvarlet P, Canva-Delcambre V, Paris JC, L'Herminé C |title=Hepatic iron overload: diagnosis and quantification with MR imaging |journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol |volume=168 |issue=5 |pages=1205–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9129412 |doi=10.2214/ajr.168.5.9129412 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7972774">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gandon Y, Guyader D, Heautot JF, Reda MI, Yaouanq J, Buhé T, Brissot P, Carsin M, Deugnier Y |title=Hemochromatosis: diagnosis and quantification of liver iron with gradient-echo MR imaging |journal=Radiology |volume=193 |issue=2 |pages=533–8 |year=1994 |pmid=7972774 |doi=10.1148/radiology.193.2.7972774 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid103525972">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Gabata T, Hussain SM |title=Expanded gallbladder fossa: simple MR imaging sign of cirrhosis |journal=Radiology |volume=211 |issue=3 |pages=723–6 |year=1999 |pmid=10352597 |doi=10.1148/radiology.211.3.r99ma31723 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid96098972">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Outwater EK, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N |title=Progressive viral-induced cirrhosis: serial MR imaging findings and clinical correlation |journal=Radiology |volume=207 |issue=3 |pages=729–35 |year=1998 |pmid=9609897 |doi=10.1148/radiology.207.3.9609897 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid82736432">{{cite journal |vauthors=Finn JP, Kane RA, Edelman RR, Jenkins RL, Lewis WD, Muller M, Longmaid HE |title=Imaging of the portal venous system in patients with cirrhosis: MR angiography vs duplex Doppler sonography |journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol |volume=161 |issue=5 |pages=989–94 |year=1993 |pmid=8273643 |doi=10.2214/ajr.161.5.8273643 |url=}}</ref>
* The role of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the diagnosis of cirrhosis is unclear.
* The use of MRI is limited by expense, patient intolerability, and the ability to obtain information provided by MRI through other means.
* MRI differentiates [[Regeneration|regenerating]] or [[Dysplasia|dysplastic]] [[Nodule (medicine)|nodules]] from [[hepatocellular carcinoma]] by accurately determining the nature of focal lesions.<ref name="pmid10405746" /><ref name="pmid104708852" /><ref name="pmid11584240">{{cite journal |vauthors=Choi D, Kim SH, Lim JH, Cho JM, Lee WJ, Lee SJ, Lim HK |title=Detection of hepatocellular carcinoma: combined T2-weighted and dynamic gadolinium-enhanced MRI versus combined CT during arterial portography and CT hepatic arteriography |journal=J Comput Assist Tomogr |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=777–85 |year=2001 |pmid=11584240 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16244259">{{cite journal |vauthors=Qayyum A, Goh JS, Kakar S, Yeh BM, Merriman RB, Coakley FV |title=Accuracy of liver fat quantification at MR imaging: comparison of out-of-phase gradient-echo and fat-saturated fast spin-echo techniques--initial experience |journal=Radiology |volume=237 |issue=2 |pages=507–11 |year=2005 |pmid=16244259 |doi=10.1148/radiol.2372040539 |url=}}</ref>
* MRI is used as a follow-up study to determine whether lesions have changed in appearance and size.
* MRI may accurately diagnose cirrhosis and determines disease severity.<ref name="pmid10470885">{{cite journal |author=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N |title=Viral-induced cirrhosis: grading of severity using MR imaging |journal=[[AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology]] |volume=173 |issue=3 |pages=591–6 |year=1999 |pmid=10470885 |doi= |url=http://www.ajronline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10470885 |accessdate=2012-09-06}}</ref><ref name="pmid10352597">{{cite journal |author=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Gabata T, Hussain SM |title=Expanded gallbladder fossa: simple MR imaging sign of cirrhosis |journal=[[Radiology]] |volume=211 |issue=3 |pages=723–6 |year=1999 |pmid=10352597 |doi= |url=http://radiology.rsnajnls.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10352597 |accessdate=2012-09-06}}</ref><ref name="pmid9609897">{{cite journal |author=Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Outwater EK, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N |title=Progressive viral-induced cirrhosis: serial MR imaging findings and clinical correlation |journal=[[Radiology]] |volume=207 |issue=3 |pages=729–35 |year=1998 |pmid=9609897 |doi= |url=http://radiology.rsnajnls.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9609897 |accessdate=2012-09-06}}</ref>
* Decreased signal intensity on MRI may also reveal an [[iron]] overload and provides an estimate of the [[Liver|hepatic]] [[iron]] concentration.
{| align="right"
|[[Image:Massive-splenomegaly.jpg|thumb|300px|Splenomegaly-Case courtesy of Dr Michael Sargent, via radiopaedia.org<ref name="https://radiopaedia.org/">Radiopaedia.org. From the case <"https://radiopaedia.org/cases/6002">rID: 6002</ref>]]
|[[Image:Cirrhosis-2.jpg|thumb|400px|Cirrhosis, via radiopaedia.org<ref name="https://radiopaedia.org/">Radiopaedia.org. From the case <"https://radiopaedia.org/cases/11317">rID: 11317</ref>]]
|}
* Abdominal MRI may also be helpful in the diagnosis of [[portal hypertension]]. Findings on MRI suggestive of cirrhosis with [[portal hypertension]] include:<ref name="ProcopetBerzigotti2017">{{cite journal|last1=Procopet|first1=Bogdan|last2=Berzigotti|first2=Annalisa|title=Diagnosis of cirrhosis and portal hypertension: imaging, non-invasive markers of fibrosis and liver biopsy|journal=Gastroenterology Report|volume=5|issue=2|year=2017|pages=79–89|issn=2052-0034|doi=10.1093/gastro/gox012}}</ref><ref name="AagaardJensen1982">{{cite journal|last1=Aagaard|first1=J|last2=Jensen|first2=LI|last3=Sorensen|first3=TI|last4=Christensen|first4=U|last5=Burcharth|first5=F|title=Recanalized umbilical vein in portal hypertension|journal=American Journal of Roentgenology|volume=139|issue=6|year=1982|pages=1107–1110|issn=0361-803X|doi=10.2214/ajr.139.6.1107}}</ref><ref name="ChoPatel1995">{{cite journal|last1=Cho|first1=K C|last2=Patel|first2=Y D|last3=Wachsberg|first3=R H|last4=Seeff|first4=J|title=Varices in portal hypertension: evaluation with CT.|journal=RadioGraphics|volume=15|issue=3|year=1995|pages=609–622|issn=0271-5333|doi=10.1148/radiographics.15.3.7624566}}</ref><ref name="BandaliMirakhur2017">{{cite journal|last1=Bandali|first1=Murad Feroz|last2=Mirakhur|first2=Anirudh|last3=Lee|first3=Edward Wolfgang|last4=Ferris|first4=Mollie Clarke|last5=Sadler|first5=David James|last6=Gray|first6=Robin Ritchie|last7=Wong|first7=Jason Kam|title=Portal hypertension: Imaging of portosystemic collateral pathways and associated image-guided therapy|journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology|volume=23|issue=10|year=2017|pages=1735|issn=1007-9327|doi=10.3748/wjg.v23.i10.1735}}</ref>
** [[Cirrhosis|Cirrhotic liver]], as shrinkage and atrophy in liver
**Re-canalized [[umbilical vein]]--[[pathognomonic]]
**Re-canalized [[umbilical vein]]--[[pathognomonic]]
**Dilated [[portal vein]] and/or [[splanchnic]] veins
**Dilated [[portal vein]] and/or [[splanchnic]] veins
Line 37: Line 24:
**[[Ascites]]
**[[Ascites]]


<br>
==MRA==
* [[Magnetic resonance angiography]] ([[Magnetic resonance angiography|MRA]]) may be used to assess [[Portal hypertension|portal hypertensive]] changes including volume and direction of blood flow in the [[portal vein]].
* [[Magnetic resonance angiography|MR angiography]] is more sensitive than [[ultrasonography]] in diagnosing complications of cirrhosis such as [[portal vein]] [[thrombosis]].<ref name="pmid8273643">{{cite journal |author=Finn JP, Kane RA, Edelman RR, Jenkins RL, Lewis WD, Muller M, Longmaid HE |title=Imaging of the portal venous system in patients with cirrhosis: MR angiography vs duplex Doppler sonography |journal=[[AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology]] |volume=161 |issue=5 |pages=989–94 |year=1993 |pmid=8273643 |doi= |url=http://www.ajronline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8273643 |accessdate=2012-09-06}}</ref>
* The use of [[Magnetic resonance angiography|MRA]] is limited by its expense and the ability of routine [[Medical ultrasonography|ultrasonography]] with Doppler to obtain adequate information for the diagnosis of cirrhosis and presence of complications.
==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}

Revision as of 13:52, 31 July 2019

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Soroush Seifirad, M.D.[2]

Overview

There are no MRI findings associated with hepatopulmonary syndrome. However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of cirrhosis.

MRI

There are no MRI findings associated with hepatopulmonary syndrome. However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of cirrhosis, which include:[1][2][3][4][5][6]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N (1999). "Viral-induced cirrhosis: grading of severity using MR imaging". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 173 (3): 591–6. doi:10.2214/ajr.173.3.10470885. PMID 10470885.
  2. ↑ Ernst O, Sergent G, Bonvarlet P, Canva-Delcambre V, Paris JC, L'Herminé C (1997). "Hepatic iron overload: diagnosis and quantification with MR imaging". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 168 (5): 1205–8. doi:10.2214/ajr.168.5.9129412. PMID 9129412.
  3. ↑ Gandon Y, Guyader D, Heautot JF, Reda MI, Yaouanq J, Buhé T, Brissot P, Carsin M, Deugnier Y (1994). "Hemochromatosis: diagnosis and quantification of liver iron with gradient-echo MR imaging". Radiology. 193 (2): 533–8. doi:10.1148/radiology.193.2.7972774. PMID 7972774.
  4. ↑ Ito K, Mitchell DG, Gabata T, Hussain SM (1999). "Expanded gallbladder fossa: simple MR imaging sign of cirrhosis". Radiology. 211 (3): 723–6. doi:10.1148/radiology.211.3.r99ma31723. PMID 10352597.
  5. ↑ Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Outwater EK, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N (1998). "Progressive viral-induced cirrhosis: serial MR imaging findings and clinical correlation". Radiology. 207 (3): 729–35. doi:10.1148/radiology.207.3.9609897. PMID 9609897.
  6. ↑ Finn JP, Kane RA, Edelman RR, Jenkins RL, Lewis WD, Muller M, Longmaid HE (1993). "Imaging of the portal venous system in patients with cirrhosis: MR angiography vs duplex Doppler sonography". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 161 (5): 989–94. doi:10.2214/ajr.161.5.8273643. PMID 8273643.
  7. ↑ Bonkovsky HL, Rubin RB, Cable EE, Davidoff A, Rijcken TH, Stark DD (1999). "Hepatic iron concentration: noninvasive estimation by means of MR imaging techniques". Radiology. 212 (1): 227–34. doi:10.1148/radiology.212.1.r99jl35227. PMID 10405746.
  8. ↑ Choi D, Kim SH, Lim JH, Cho JM, Lee WJ, Lee SJ, Lim HK (2001). "Detection of hepatocellular carcinoma: combined T2-weighted and dynamic gadolinium-enhanced MRI versus combined CT during arterial portography and CT hepatic arteriography". J Comput Assist Tomogr. 25 (5): 777–85. PMID 11584240.
  9. ↑ Qayyum A, Goh JS, Kakar S, Yeh BM, Merriman RB, Coakley FV (2005). "Accuracy of liver fat quantification at MR imaging: comparison of out-of-phase gradient-echo and fat-saturated fast spin-echo techniques--initial experience". Radiology. 237 (2): 507–11. doi:10.1148/radiol.2372040539. PMID 16244259.
  10. ↑ Finn JP, Kane RA, Edelman RR, Jenkins RL, Lewis WD, Muller M, Longmaid HE (1993). "Imaging of the portal venous system in patients with cirrhosis: MR angiography vs duplex Doppler sonography". AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 161 (5): 989–94. PMID 8273643. Retrieved 2012-09-06.
  11. ↑ Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N (1999). "Viral-induced cirrhosis: grading of severity using MR imaging". AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 173 (3): 591–6. PMID 10470885. Retrieved 2012-09-06.
  12. ↑ Ito K, Mitchell DG, Gabata T, Hussain SM (1999). "Expanded gallbladder fossa: simple MR imaging sign of cirrhosis". Radiology. 211 (3): 723–6. PMID 10352597. Retrieved 2012-09-06.
  13. ↑ Ito K, Mitchell DG, Hann HW, Outwater EK, Kim Y, Fujita T, Okazaki H, Honjo K, Matsunaga N (1998). "Progressive viral-induced cirrhosis: serial MR imaging findings and clinical correlation". Radiology. 207 (3): 729–35. PMID 9609897. Retrieved 2012-09-06.
  14. ↑ Procopet, Bogdan; Berzigotti, Annalisa (2017). "Diagnosis of cirrhosis and portal hypertension: imaging, non-invasive markers of fibrosis and liver biopsy". Gastroenterology Report. 5 (2): 79–89. doi:10.1093/gastro/gox012. ISSN 2052-0034.
  15. ↑ Aagaard, J; Jensen, LI; Sorensen, TI; Christensen, U; Burcharth, F (1982). "Recanalized umbilical vein in portal hypertension". American Journal of Roentgenology. 139 (6): 1107–1110. doi:10.2214/ajr.139.6.1107. ISSN 0361-803X.
  16. ↑ Cho, K C; Patel, Y D; Wachsberg, R H; Seeff, J (1995). "Varices in portal hypertension: evaluation with CT". RadioGraphics. 15 (3): 609–622. doi:10.1148/radiographics.15.3.7624566. ISSN 0271-5333.
  17. ↑ Bandali, Murad Feroz; Mirakhur, Anirudh; Lee, Edward Wolfgang; Ferris, Mollie Clarke; Sadler, David James; Gray, Robin Ritchie; Wong, Jason Kam (2017). "Portal hypertension: Imaging of portosystemic collateral pathways and associated image-guided therapy". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 23 (10): 1735. doi:10.3748/wjg.v23.i10.1735. ISSN 1007-9327.

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