Brain tumor: Difference between revisions

	Brain tumor Microchapters
Patient Information
Overview
Classification Adult brain tumors Glioblastoma multiforme Oligodendroglioma Meningioma Hemangioblastoma Pituitary adenoma Schwannoma Primary CNS lymphoma Childhood brain tumors Pilocytic astrocytoma Medulloblastoma Ependymoma Craniopharyngioma Pinealoma Metastasis Lung cancer Breast cancer Melanoma Gastrointestinal tract cancer Renal cell carcinoma Osteoblastoma Head and neck cancer Neuroblastoma Lymphoma Prostate cancer
Causes
Differentiating Brain Tumor from other Diseases

	Brain tumor;
	CT scan of brain showing brain cancer to left parietal lobe in the peri-ventricular area.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hirnmetastase_MRT-T1_KM.jpg

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Revision as of 15:42, 17 October 2019

For patient information click here

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Assosciate editor(s)-In-Chief Fahimeh Shojaei, M.D., Prashanth Saddala, Sujit Routray, M.D. [2]

Synonyms and keywords: Brain tumour; brain cancer; intracranial tumor; astrocytoma; glioblastoma; oligodendrocytoma; meningioma; ependymoma; craniopharyngioma.

Overview

Classification

Brain tumors can be classified as follows:

Brain tumors

Adult primary brain tumor

Childhood primary brain tumor

Brain metastase

•Glioblastoma multiforme
•Oligodendroglioma
•Meningioma
•Hemangioblastoma
•Pituitary adenoma
•Schwannoma
•Primary CNS lymphoma

•Pilocytic astrocytoma
•Medulloblastoma
•Ependymoma
•Craniopharyngioma
•Pinealoma

•Lung cancer
•Breast cancer
•Melanoma
•Gastrointestinal tract cancer
•Renal cell carcinoma
•Osteosarcoma
•Head and neck cancer
•Neuroblastoma
•Lymphoma
•Prostate cancer

Causes

The exact cause of brain tumor is not known.

Differentiating Brain Tumor from other Diseases

On the basis of seizure, visual disturbance, and constitutional symptoms, brain tumors must be differentiated from AV malformation, brain aneurysm, bacterial brain abscess, tuberculosis, toxoplasmosis, hydatid cyst, CNS cryptococcosis, CNS aspergillosis, and brain metastasis.

	Symptoms				Physical examination	Lab Findings	MRI	Immunohistopathology
Diseases	Clinical manifestations					Para-clinical findings			Gold standard	Additional findings
	Symptoms				Physical examination	Para-clinical findings
	Head- ache	Seizure	Visual disturbance	Constitutional	Focal neurological deficit	Lab Findings	MRI	Immunohistopathology
Adult primary brain tumors
Glioblastoma multiforme ^[1]^[2]^[3]	+	+/−	+/−	−	+	−	Supratentorial Irregular ring-nodular enhancing lesions Central necrosis Surrounding vasogenic edema Cross corpus callosum (butterfly glioma)	Astrocyte origin Pleomorphic cell Pseudopalisading appearance GFAP + Necrosis + Hemorrhage + Vascular prolifration +	Biopsy	Highest incidence in fifth and sixth decades of life Most of the time, focal neurological deficit is the presenting sign.
Oligodendroglioma ^[4]^[5]^[6]	+	+	+/−	−	+	−	Almost always in cerebral hemisphers (frontal lobes) Hypointense on T1 Hyperintense on T2 Calcification Chicken wire capillary pattern	Oligodendrocyte origin Calcification + Fried egg cell appearance	Biopsy	Highest incidence is between 40 and 50 years of age. Most of the time, epileptic seizure is the presenting sign.
Meningioma ^[7]^[8]^[9]	+	+/−	+/−	−	+	−	Well circumscribed Extra-axial mass Dural attachment CSF vascular cleft sign Sunburst appearance of the vessels	Arachnoid origin Psammoma bodies Whorled spindle cell pattern	Biopsy	Highest incidence is between 40 and 50 years of age. Most of the time, focal neurological deficit and epileptic seizure are the presenting signs. May be associated with NF-2
Hemangioblastoma ^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]	+	+/−	+/−	−	+	−	Infratentorial Cystic lesion with a solid enhancing mural nodule	Blood vessel origin Capillaries with thin walls	Biopsy	Might secret erythropoietin and cause polycythemia May be associated with von hippel-lindau syndrome
Pituitary adenoma ^[14]^[15]^[3]	−	−	+ Bitemporal hemianopia	−	−	Endocrine abnormalities as a result of functional adenomas or pressure effect of non-functional adenomas	Isointense to normal pituitary gland in T1	Endocrine cell hyperplasia	Biopsy	It is associated with MEN1 disease. Initialy presents with upper bitemporal quadrantanopsia followed by bitemporal hemianopsia (pressure on optic chiasma from below)
Schwannoma ^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]	−	−	−	−	+	−	Split-fat sign Fascicular sign Often have areas of hemosiderin	Schwann cell origin S100+	Biopsy	It causes hearing loss and tinnitus May be associated with NF-2 (bilateral schwannomas)
Primary CNS lymphoma ^[20]^[21]	+	+/−	+/−	−	+	−	Usually deep in the white matter Single mass with ring enhancement	B cell origin Similar to non hodgkin lymphoma (diffuse large B cell)	Biopsy	Usually in young immunocompromised patients (HIV) or old immunocompetent person.
Childhood primary brain tumors
Pilocytic astrocytoma ^[22]^[23]^[24]	+	+/−	+/−	−	+	−	Infratentorial Solid and cystic component Mostly in posterior fossa Usually in cerebellar hemisphers and vermis	Glial cell origin Solid and cystic component GFAP +	Biopsy	Most of the time, cerebellar dysfunction is the presenting signs.
Medulloblastoma ^[25]^[26]^[27]	+	+/−	+/−	−	+	−	Infratentorial Mostly in cerebellum Non communicating hydrocephalus	Neuroectoderm origin Homer wright rosettes	Biopsy	Drop metastasis (metastasis through CSF)
Ependymoma ^[28]^[3]	+	+/−	+/−	−	+	−	Infratentorial Usually found in 4th ventricle Mixed cystic/solid lesion Hydrocephalus	Ependymal cell origin Perivascular pseudorosette	Biopsy	Causes an unusually persistent, continuous headache in children.
Craniopharyngioma ^[29]^[30]^[31]^[3]	+	+/−	+ Bitemporal hemianopia	−	+	Hypopituitarism as a result of pressure effect on pituitary gland	Calcification Lobulated contour Motor-oil like fluid within tumor	Ectodermal origin (Rathkes pouch) Calcification +	Biopsy	Initialy presents with lower bitemporal quadrantanopsia followed by bitemporal hemianopsia (pressure on optic chiasma from above)
Pinealoma ^[32]^[33]^[34]	+	+/−	+/−	−	+ vertical gaze palsy	B-hCG rise leads to precocious puberty in males	Hydrocephalus (compression of cerebral aqueduct)	Similar to testicular seminoma	Biopsy	May cause prinaud syndrome (vertical gaze palsy, pupillary light-near dissociation, lid retraction and convergence-retraction nystagmus
Vascular
AV malformation ^[35]^[36]^[3]	+	+	+/−	−	+/−	−	Supratentorial: ~85% Flow voids on T2 weighted images	We do not perform biopsy for AVM	Angiography	We may see bag of worms appearance in CT angiography
Brain aneurysm ^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]	+	+/−	+/−	−	+/−	−	In magnetic resonance angiography, we may see aneurysm mostly in anterior circulation (~85%)	We do not perform biopsy for brain aneurysm	MRA and CTA	It is associated with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, pseudoxanthoma elasticum and Bicuspid aortic valve (Angiography is reserved for patients who have negative MRA and CTA)
Infectious
Bacterial brain abscess ^[42]^[43]	+	+/−	+/−	+	+	Leukocytosis Elevated ESR Blood culture may be positive for underlying organism	Central hypodense signal and surrounding ring-enhancement in T1 Central hyperintense area surrounded by a well-defined hypointense capsule with surrounding edema in T2	We do not perform biopsy for brain abscess	History/ imaging	The most common causes of brain abscess are Streptococcus and Staphylococcus.
Tuberculosis ^[44]^[3]^[45]	+	+/−	+/−	+	+	Positive acid-fast bacilli (AFB) smear in CSF specimen Positive CSF nucleic acid amplification testing Hyponatremia (inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone) Mild anemia Leukocytosis	Hydrocephalus combined with marked basilar meningeal enhancement	We do not perform biopsy for brain tuberculosis	Lab data/ Imaging	It is associated with HIV infection
Toxoplasmosis ^[46]^[47]	+	+/−	+/−	−	+	Normal CSF	Multifocal masses with ring enhancement Mostly in basal ganglia, thalami, and corticomedullary junction.	We do not perform biopsy for brain toxoplasmosis	History/ imaging	It is associated with HIV infection
Hydatid cyst ^[48]^[3]	+	+/−	+/−	+/−	+	Positive serology (Antibody detection for E. granulosus)	Honeycomb appearance Necrotic area	We do not perform biopsy for hydatid cysts	Imaging	Brain, eye, and splenic cysts may not produce detectable amount of antibodies
CNS cryptococcosis ^[49]	+	+/−	+/−	+	+	Positive CSF antigen testing (coccidioidomycosis) CSF lymphocytic pleocytosis Elevated CSF proteins and lactate Low CSF glucose	Dilated perivascular spaces Basal ganglia pseudocysts Soap bubble brain lesions (cryptococcus neoformans)	We may see numerous acutely branching septate hyphae	Lab data/ Imaging	It is the most common brain fungal infection It is associated with HIV, immunosuppressive therapies, and organ transplants In may happen in immunocompetent patients undergoing invasive procedures ( neurosurgery) or exposed to contaminated devices or drugs Since brain biopsies are highly invasive and may may cause neurological deficits, we diagnose CNS fungal infections based on laboratory and imaging findings
CNS aspergillosis ^[50]	+	+/−	+/−	+	+	Positive galactomannan antigen testing (aspergillosis) CSF lymphocytic pleocytosis Elevated CSF proteins and lactate Low CSF glucose	Multiple abscesses Ring enhancement Peripheral low signal intensity on T2	We may see numerous acutely branching septate hyphae	Lab data/ Imaging	It is associated with HIV, immunosuppressive therapies, and organ transplants In may happen in immunocompetent patients undergoing invasive procedures ( neurosurgery) or exposed to contaminated devices or drugs Since brain biopsies are highly invasive and may may cause neurological deficits, we diagnose CNS fungal infections based on laboratory and imaging findings
Other
Brain metastasis ^[51]^[3]	+	+/−	+/−	+	+	−	Multiple lesions Vasogenic edema	Based on the primary cancer type we may have different immunohistopathology findings.	History/ imaging	Most common primary tumors that metastasis to brain: Lung cancer Renal cell carcinoma Breast cancer Melanoma Gastrointestinal tract If there is any uncertainty about etiology, biopsy should be performed

ABBREVIATIONS

CNS=Central nervous system, AV=Arteriovenous, CSF=Cerebrospinal fluid, NF-2=Neurofibromatosis type 2, MEN-1=Multiple endocrine neoplasia, GFAP=Glial fibrillary acidic protein, HIV=Human immunodeficiency virus, BhCG=Human chorionic gonadotropin, ESR=Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, AFB=Acid fast bacilli, MRA=Magnetic resonance angiography, CTA=CT angiography

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↑ Begnami MD, Palau M, Rushing EJ, Santi M, Quezado M (September 2007). "Evaluation of NF2 gene deletion in sporadic schwannomas, meningiomas, and ependymomas by chromogenic in situ hybridization". Hum. Pathol. 38 (9): 1345–50. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2007.01.027. PMC 2094208. PMID 17509660.
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[pmid17964028-1] Sathornsumetee S, Rich JN, Reardon DA (November 2007). "Diagnosis and treatment of high-grade astrocytoma". Neurol Clin. 25 (4): 1111–39, x. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2007.07.004. PMID 17964028.

[pmid22819718-2] Pedersen CL, Romner B (January 2013). "Current treatment of low grade astrocytoma: a review". Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 115 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.002. PMID 22819718.

[:0-3] 3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 ^3.3 ^3.4 ^3.5 ^3.6 ^3.7 Mattle, Heinrich (2017). Fundamentals of neurology : an illustrated guide. Stuttgart New York: Thieme. ISBN 9783131364524.

[pmid26849038-4] Smits M (2016). "Imaging of oligodendroglioma". Br J Radiol. 89 (1060): 20150857. doi:10.1259/bjr.20150857. PMC 4846213. PMID 26849038.

[pmid25943885-5] Wesseling P, van den Bent M, Perry A (June 2015). "Oligodendroglioma: pathology, molecular mechanisms and markers". Acta Neuropathol. 129 (6): 809–27. doi:10.1007/s00401-015-1424-1. PMC 4436696. PMID 25943885.

[pmid26478444-6] Kerkhof M, Benit C, Duran-Pena A, Vecht CJ (2015). "Seizures in oligodendroglial tumors". CNS Oncol. 4 (5): 347–56. doi:10.2217/cns.15.29. PMC 6082346. PMID 26478444.

[pmid1642904-7] Zee CS, Chin T, Segall HD, Destian S, Ahmadi J (June 1992). "Magnetic resonance imaging of meningiomas". Semin. Ultrasound CT MR. 13 (3): 154–69. PMID 1642904.

[pmid25744347-8] Shibuya M (2015). "Pathology and molecular genetics of meningioma: recent advances". Neurol. Med. Chir. (Tokyo). 55 (1): 14–27. doi:10.2176/nmc.ra.2014-0233. PMID 25744347.

[pmid17509660-9] Begnami MD, Palau M, Rushing EJ, Santi M, Quezado M (September 2007). "Evaluation of NF2 gene deletion in sporadic schwannomas, meningiomas, and ependymomas by chromogenic in situ hybridization". Hum. Pathol. 38 (9): 1345–50. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2007.01.027. PMC 2094208. PMID 17509660.

[pmid24579662-10] Lonser RR, Butman JA, Huntoon K, Asthagiri AR, Wu T, Bakhtian KD, Chew EY, Zhuang Z, Linehan WM, Oldfield EH (May 2014). "Prospective natural history study of central nervous system hemangioblastomas in von Hippel-Lindau disease". J. Neurosurg. 120 (5): 1055–62. doi:10.3171/2014.1.JNS131431. PMC 4762041. PMID 24579662.

[pmid17877533-11] Hussein MR (October 2007). "Central nervous system capillary haemangioblastoma: the pathologist's viewpoint". Int J Exp Pathol. 88 (5): 311–24. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2613.2007.00535.x. PMC 2517334. PMID 17877533.

[pmid2704812-12] Lee SR, Sanches J, Mark AS, Dillon WP, Norman D, Newton TH (May 1989). "Posterior fossa hemangioblastomas: MR imaging". Radiology. 171 (2): 463–8. doi:10.1148/radiology.171.2.2704812. PMID 2704812.

[pmid945331-13] Perks WH, Cross JN, Sivapragasam S, Johnson P (March 1976). "Supratentorial haemangioblastoma with polycythaemia". J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 39 (3): 218–20. PMID 945331.

[pmid3786729-14] Kucharczyk W, Davis DO, Kelly WM, Sze G, Norman D, Newton TH (December 1986). "Pituitary adenomas: high-resolution MR imaging at 1.5 T". Radiology. 161 (3): 761–5. doi:10.1148/radiology.161.3.3786729. PMID 3786729.

[pmid22584705-15] Syro LV, Scheithauer BW, Kovacs K, Toledo RA, Londoño FJ, Ortiz LD, Rotondo F, Horvath E, Uribe H (2012). "Pituitary tumors in patients with MEN1 syndrome". Clinics (Sao Paulo). 67 Suppl 1: 43–8. PMC 3328811. PMID 22584705.

[DonnellyDaly2007-16] Donnelly, Martin J.; Daly, Carmel A.; Briggs, Robert J. S. (2007). "MR imaging features of an intracochlear acoustic schwannoma". The Journal of Laryngology & Otology. 108 (12). doi:10.1017/S0022215100129056. ISSN 0022-2151.

[pmid9639114-17] Feany MB, Anthony DC, Fletcher CD (May 1998). "Nerve sheath tumours with hybrid features of neurofibroma and schwannoma: a conceptual challenge". Histopathology. 32 (5): 405–10. PMID 9639114.

[pmid28710469-18] Chen H, Xue L, Wang H, Wang Z, Wu H (July 2017). "Differential NF2 Gene Status in Sporadic Vestibular Schwannomas and its Prognostic Impact on Tumour Growth Patterns". Sci Rep. 7 (1): 5470. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-05769-0. PMID 28710469.

[HardellHansson_Mild2003-19] Hardell, Lennart; Hansson Mild, Kjell; Sandström, Monica; Carlberg, Michael; Hallquist, Arne; Påhlson, Anneli (2003). "Vestibular Schwannoma, Tinnitus and Cellular Telephones". Neuroepidemiology. 22 (2): 124–129. doi:10.1159/000068745. ISSN 0251-5350.

[pmid7480733-20] Chinn RJ, Wilkinson ID, Hall-Craggs MA, Paley MN, Miller RF, Kendall BE, Newman SP, Harrison MJ (December 1995). "Toxoplasmosis and primary central nervous system lymphoma in HIV infection: diagnosis with MR spectroscopy". Radiology. 197 (3): 649–54. doi:10.1148/radiology.197.3.7480733. PMID 7480733.

[Paulus19992-21] Paulus, Werner (1999). "Classification, Pathogenesis and Molecular Pathology of Primary CNS Lymphomas". Journal of Neuro-Oncology. 43 (3): 203–208. doi:10.1023/A:1006242116122. ISSN 0167-594X.

[pmid179640282-22] Sathornsumetee S, Rich JN, Reardon DA (November 2007). "Diagnosis and treatment of high-grade astrocytoma". Neurol Clin. 25 (4): 1111–39, x. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2007.07.004. PMID 17964028.

[pmid228197182-23] Pedersen CL, Romner B (January 2013). "Current treatment of low grade astrocytoma: a review". Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 115 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.002. PMID 22819718.

[:02-24] Mattle, Heinrich (2017). Fundamentals of neurology : an illustrated guide. Stuttgart New York: Thieme. ISBN 9783131364524.

[DorwartWara1981-25] Dorwart, R H; Wara, W M; Norman, D; Levin, V A (1981). "Complete myelographic evaluation of spinal metastases from medulloblastoma". Radiology. 139 (2): 403–408. doi:10.1148/radiology.139.2.7220886. ISSN 0033-8419.

[Fruehwald-PallamarPuchner2011-26] Fruehwald-Pallamar, Julia; Puchner, Stefan B.; Rossi, Andrea; Garre, Maria L.; Cama, Armando; Koelblinger, Claus; Osborn, Anne G.; Thurnher, Majda M. (2011). "Magnetic resonance imaging spectrum of medulloblastoma". Neuroradiology. 53 (6): 387–396. doi:10.1007/s00234-010-0829-8. ISSN 0028-3940.

[BurgerGrahmann1987-27] Burger, P. C.; Grahmann, F. C.; Bliestle, A.; Kleihues, P. (1987). "Differentiation in the medulloblastoma". Acta Neuropathologica. 73 (2): 115–123. doi:10.1007/BF00693776. ISSN 0001-6322.

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[ChapmanRubinstein1992-37] Chapman, Arlene B.; Rubinstein, David; Hughes, Richard; Stears, John C.; Earnest, Michael P.; Johnson, Ann M.; Gabow, Patricia A.; Kaehny, William D. (1992). "Intracranial Aneurysms in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease". New England Journal of Medicine. 327 (13): 916–920. doi:10.1056/NEJM199209243271303. ISSN 0028-4793.

[pmid25632331-38] Castori M, Voermans NC (October 2014). "Neurological manifestations of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome(s): A review". Iran J Neurol. 13 (4): 190–208. PMC 4300794. PMID 25632331.

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[pmid74807332-46] Chinn RJ, Wilkinson ID, Hall-Craggs MA, Paley MN, Miller RF, Kendall BE, Newman SP, Harrison MJ (December 1995). "Toxoplasmosis and primary central nervous system lymphoma in HIV infection: diagnosis with MR spectroscopy". Radiology. 197 (3): 649–54. doi:10.1148/radiology.197.3.7480733. PMID 7480733.

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@@ Line 59: / Line 59: @@
 ! colspan="11" style="background: #7d7d7d; color: #FFFFFF; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Adult primary brain tumors
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Glioblastoma multiforme]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Glioblastoma multiforme]]<br><ref name="pmid17964028">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sathornsumetee S, Rich JN, Reardon DA |title=Diagnosis and treatment of high-grade astrocytoma |journal=Neurol Clin |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=1111–39, x |date=November 2007 |pmid=17964028 |doi=10.1016/j.ncl.2007.07.004 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22819718">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pedersen CL, Romner B |title=Current treatment of low grade astrocytoma: a review |journal=Clin Neurol Neurosurg |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |date=January 2013 |pmid=22819718 |doi=10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.002 |url=}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book | last = Mattle | first = Heinrich | title = Fundamentals of neurology : an illustrated guide | publisher = Thieme | location = Stuttgart New York | year = 2017 | isbn = 9783131364524 }}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 93: / Line 93: @@
 * Most of the time, focal [[neurological]] deficit is the presenting [[Sign (medical)|sign]].
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Oligodendroglioma]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Oligodendroglioma]]<br><ref name="pmid26849038">{{cite journal |vauthors=Smits M |title=Imaging of oligodendroglioma |journal=Br J Radiol |volume=89 |issue=1060 |pages=20150857 |date=2016 |pmid=26849038 |pmc=4846213 |doi=10.1259/bjr.20150857 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25943885">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wesseling P, van den Bent M, Perry A |title=Oligodendroglioma: pathology, molecular mechanisms and markers |journal=Acta Neuropathol. |volume=129 |issue=6 |pages=809–27 |date=June 2015 |pmid=25943885 |pmc=4436696 |doi=10.1007/s00401-015-1424-1 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26478444">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kerkhof M, Benit C, Duran-Pena A, Vecht CJ |title=Seizures in oligodendroglial tumors |journal=CNS Oncol |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=347–56 |date=2015 |pmid=26478444 |pmc=6082346 |doi=10.2217/cns.15.29 |url=}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
@@ Line 120: / Line 120: @@
 * Most of the time, [[epileptic seizure]] is the presenting [[Sign (medicine)|sign]].
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Meningioma]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Meningioma]]<br><ref name="pmid1642904">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zee CS, Chin T, Segall HD, Destian S, Ahmadi J |title=Magnetic resonance imaging of meningiomas |journal=Semin. Ultrasound CT MR |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=154–69 |date=June 1992 |pmid=1642904 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25744347">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shibuya M |title=Pathology and molecular genetics of meningioma: recent advances |journal=Neurol. Med. Chir. (Tokyo) |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=14–27 |date=2015 |pmid=25744347 |doi=10.2176/nmc.ra.2014-0233 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17509660">{{cite journal |vauthors=Begnami MD, Palau M, Rushing EJ, Santi M, Quezado M |title=Evaluation of NF2 gene deletion in sporadic schwannomas, meningiomas, and ependymomas by chromogenic in situ hybridization |journal=Hum. Pathol. |volume=38 |issue=9 |pages=1345–50 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17509660 |pmc=2094208 |doi=10.1016/j.humpath.2007.01.027 |url=}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 148: / Line 148: @@
 * May be associated with [[Neurofibromatosis type II|NF-2]]
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Hemangioblastoma]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Hemangioblastoma]]<br><ref name="pmid24579662">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lonser RR, Butman JA, Huntoon K, Asthagiri AR, Wu T, Bakhtian KD, Chew EY, Zhuang Z, Linehan WM, Oldfield EH |title=Prospective natural history study of central nervous system hemangioblastomas in von Hippel-Lindau disease |journal=J. Neurosurg. |volume=120 |issue=5 |pages=1055–62 |date=May 2014 |pmid=24579662 |pmc=4762041 |doi=10.3171/2014.1.JNS131431 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17877533">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hussein MR |title=Central nervous system capillary haemangioblastoma: the pathologist's viewpoint |journal=Int J Exp Pathol |volume=88 |issue=5 |pages=311–24 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17877533 |pmc=2517334 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2613.2007.00535.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2704812">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee SR, Sanches J, Mark AS, Dillon WP, Norman D, Newton TH |title=Posterior fossa hemangioblastomas: MR imaging |journal=Radiology |volume=171 |issue=2 |pages=463–8 |date=May 1989 |pmid=2704812 |doi=10.1148/radiology.171.2.2704812 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid945331">{{cite journal |vauthors=Perks WH, Cross JN, Sivapragasam S, Johnson P |title=Supratentorial haemangioblastoma with polycythaemia |journal=J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=218–20 |date=March 1976 |pmid=945331 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 169: / Line 169: @@
 * May be associated with [[Von Hippel-Lindau Disease|von hippel-lindau syndrome]]
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pituitary adenoma]]<br><ref name=":0" />
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pituitary adenoma]]<br><ref name="pmid3786729">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kucharczyk W, Davis DO, Kelly WM, Sze G, Norman D, Newton TH |title=Pituitary adenomas: high-resolution MR imaging at 1.5 T |journal=Radiology |volume=161 |issue=3 |pages=761–5 |date=December 1986 |pmid=3786729 |doi=10.1148/radiology.161.3.3786729 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22584705">{{cite journal |vauthors=Syro LV, Scheithauer BW, Kovacs K, Toledo RA, Londoño FJ, Ortiz LD, Rotondo F, Horvath E, Uribe H |title=Pituitary tumors in patients with MEN1 syndrome |journal=Clinics (Sao Paulo) |volume=67 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=43–8 |date=2012 |pmid=22584705 |pmc=3328811 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | −
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | −
@@ Line 192: / Line 192: @@
 *
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Schwannoma]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Schwannoma]]<br><ref name="DonnellyDaly2007">{{cite journal|last1=Donnelly|first1=Martin J.|last2=Daly|first2=Carmel A.|last3=Briggs|first3=Robert J. S.|title=MR imaging features of an intracochlear acoustic schwannoma|journal=The Journal of Laryngology & Otology|volume=108|issue=12|year=2007|issn=0022-2151|doi=10.1017/S0022215100129056}}</ref><ref name="pmid9639114">{{cite journal |vauthors=Feany MB, Anthony DC, Fletcher CD |title=Nerve sheath tumours with hybrid features of neurofibroma and schwannoma: a conceptual challenge |journal=Histopathology |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=405–10 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9639114 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28710469">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen H, Xue L, Wang H, Wang Z, Wu H |title=Differential NF2 Gene Status in Sporadic Vestibular Schwannomas and its Prognostic Impact on Tumour Growth Patterns |journal=Sci Rep |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=5470 |date=July 2017 |pmid=28710469 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-05769-0 |url=}}</ref><ref name="HardellHansson Mild2003">{{cite journal|last1=Hardell|first1=Lennart|last2=Hansson Mild|first2=Kjell|last3=Sandström|first3=Monica|last4=Carlberg|first4=Michael|last5=Hallquist|first5=Arne|last6=Påhlson|first6=Anneli|title=Vestibular Schwannoma, Tinnitus and Cellular Telephones|journal=Neuroepidemiology|volume=22|issue=2|year=2003|pages=124–129|issn=0251-5350|doi=10.1159/000068745}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | −
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | −
@@ Line 214: / Line 214: @@
 * May be associated with [[Neurofibromatosis type II|NF-2]] (bilateral [[Schwannoma|schwannomas]])
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Primary central nervous system lymphoma|Primary CNS lymphoma]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Primary central nervous system lymphoma|Primary CNS lymphoma]]<br><ref name="pmid7480733">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chinn RJ, Wilkinson ID, Hall-Craggs MA, Paley MN, Miller RF, Kendall BE, Newman SP, Harrison MJ |title=Toxoplasmosis and primary central nervous system lymphoma in HIV infection: diagnosis with MR spectroscopy |journal=Radiology |volume=197 |issue=3 |pages=649–54 |date=December 1995 |pmid=7480733 |doi=10.1148/radiology.197.3.7480733 |url=}}</ref><ref name="Paulus19992">{{cite journal|last1=Paulus|first1=Werner|journal=Journal of Neuro-Oncology|title=Classification, Pathogenesis and Molecular Pathology of Primary CNS Lymphomas|volume=43|issue=3|year=1999|pages=203–208|issn=0167594X|doi=10.1023/A:1006242116122}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 238: / Line 238: @@
 ! colspan="11" style="background: #7d7d7d; color: #FFFFFF; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Childhood primary brain tumors
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pilocytic astrocytoma]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pilocytic astrocytoma]]<br><ref name="pmid179640282">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sathornsumetee S, Rich JN, Reardon DA |title=Diagnosis and treatment of high-grade astrocytoma |journal=Neurol Clin |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=1111–39, x |date=November 2007 |pmid=17964028 |doi=10.1016/j.ncl.2007.07.004 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid228197182">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pedersen CL, Romner B |title=Current treatment of low grade astrocytoma: a review |journal=Clin Neurol Neurosurg |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |date=January 2013 |pmid=22819718 |doi=10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.002 |url=}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{cite book | last = Mattle | first = Heinrich | title = Fundamentals of neurology : an illustrated guide | publisher = Thieme | location = Stuttgart New York | year = 2017 | isbn = 9783131364524 }}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 261: / Line 261: @@
 * Most of the time, [[Cerebellum|cerebellar]] dysfunction is the presenting [[signs]].
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Medulloblastoma]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Medulloblastoma]]<br><ref name="DorwartWara1981">{{cite journal|last1=Dorwart|first1=R H|last2=Wara|first2=W M|last3=Norman|first3=D|last4=Levin|first4=V A|title=Complete myelographic evaluation of spinal metastases from medulloblastoma.|journal=Radiology|volume=139|issue=2|year=1981|pages=403–408|issn=0033-8419|doi=10.1148/radiology.139.2.7220886}}</ref><ref name="Fruehwald-PallamarPuchner2011">{{cite journal|last1=Fruehwald-Pallamar|first1=Julia|last2=Puchner|first2=Stefan B.|last3=Rossi|first3=Andrea|last4=Garre|first4=Maria L.|last5=Cama|first5=Armando|last6=Koelblinger|first6=Claus|last7=Osborn|first7=Anne G.|last8=Thurnher|first8=Majda M.|title=Magnetic resonance imaging spectrum of medulloblastoma|journal=Neuroradiology|volume=53|issue=6|year=2011|pages=387–396|issn=0028-3940|doi=10.1007/s00234-010-0829-8}}</ref><ref name="BurgerGrahmann1987">{{cite journal|last1=Burger|first1=P. C.|last2=Grahmann|first2=F. C.|last3=Bliestle|first3=A.|last4=Kleihues|first4=P.|title=Differentiation in the medulloblastoma|journal=Acta Neuropathologica|volume=73|issue=2|year=1987|pages=115–123|issn=0001-6322|doi=10.1007/BF00693776}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 283: / Line 283: @@
 * [[Drop metastasis]] ([[metastasis]] through [[CSF]])
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Ependymoma]]<br><ref name=":0" />
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Ependymoma]]<br><ref name="YuhBarkovich2009">{{cite journal|last1=Yuh|first1=E. L.|last2=Barkovich|first2=A. J.|last3=Gupta|first3=N.|title=Imaging of ependymomas: MRI and CT|journal=Child's Nervous System|volume=25|issue=10|year=2009|pages=1203–1213|issn=0256-7040|doi=10.1007/s00381-009-0878-7}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 306: / Line 306: @@
 * Causes an unusually persistent, continuous [[headache]] in children.
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Craniopharyngioma]]<br><ref name=":0" />
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Craniopharyngioma]]<br><ref name="pmid12407316">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brunel H, Raybaud C, Peretti-Viton P, Lena G, Girard N, Paz-Paredes A, Levrier O, Farnarier P, Manera L, Choux M |title=[Craniopharyngioma in children: MRI study of 43 cases] |language=French |journal=Neurochirurgie |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=309–18 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12407316 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="PrabhuBrown2005">{{cite journal|last1=Prabhu|first1=Vikram C.|last2=Brown|first2=Henry G.|title=The pathogenesis of craniopharyngiomas|journal=Child's Nervous System|volume=21|issue=8-9|year=2005|pages=622–627|issn=0256-7040|doi=10.1007/s00381-005-1190-9}}</ref><ref name="pmid766825">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kennedy HB, Smith RJ |title=Eye signs in craniopharyngioma |journal=Br J Ophthalmol |volume=59 |issue=12 |pages=689–95 |date=December 1975 |pmid=766825 |pmc=1017436 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 327: / Line 327: @@
 * Initialy presents with lower bitemporal quadrantanopsia followed by [[Bitemporal hemianopia|bitemporal hemianopsia]] (pressure on [[Optic chiasm|optic chiasma]] from above)
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pinealoma]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pinealoma]]<br><ref name="pmid6625640">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ahmed SR, Shalet SM, Price DA, Pearson D |title=Human chorionic gonadotrophin secreting pineal germinoma and precocious puberty |journal=Arch. Dis. Child. |volume=58 |issue=9 |pages=743–5 |date=September 1983 |pmid=6625640 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="Sano1976">{{cite journal|last1=Sano|first1=Keiji|title=Pinealoma in Children|journal=Pediatric Neurosurgery|volume=2|issue=1|year=1976|pages=67–72|issn=1016-2291|doi=10.1159/000119602}}</ref><ref name="Baggenstoss1939">{{cite journal|last1=Baggenstoss|first1=Archie H.|title=PINEALOMAS|journal=Archives of Neurology And Psychiatry|volume=41|issue=6|year=1939|pages=1187|issn=0096-6754|doi=10.1001/archneurpsyc.1939.02270180115011}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 346: / Line 346: @@
 ! colspan="11" style="background: #7d7d7d; color: #FFFFFF; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Vascular
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Arteriovenous malformation|AV malformation]]<br><ref name=":0" />
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Arteriovenous malformation|AV malformation]]<br><ref name="KucharczykLemme-Pleghos1985">{{cite journal|last1=Kucharczyk|first1=W|last2=Lemme-Pleghos|first2=L|last3=Uske|first3=A|last4=Brant-Zawadzki|first4=M|last5=Dooms|first5=G|last6=Norman|first6=D|title=Intracranial vascular malformations: MR and CT imaging.|journal=Radiology|volume=156|issue=2|year=1985|pages=383–389|issn=0033-8419|doi=10.1148/radiology.156.2.4011900}}</ref><ref name="FleetwoodSteinberg2002">{{cite journal|last1=Fleetwood|first1=Ian G|last2=Steinberg|first2=Gary K|title=Arteriovenous malformations|journal=The Lancet|volume=359|issue=9309|year=2002|pages=863–873|issn=01406736|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07946-1}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
@@ Line 363: / Line 363: @@
 * We may see bag of worms appearance in [[CT angiography]]
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Brain aneurysm]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Brain aneurysm]]<br><ref name="ChapmanRubinstein1992">{{cite journal|last1=Chapman|first1=Arlene B.|last2=Rubinstein|first2=David|last3=Hughes|first3=Richard|last4=Stears|first4=John C.|last5=Earnest|first5=Michael P.|last6=Johnson|first6=Ann M.|last7=Gabow|first7=Patricia A.|last8=Kaehny|first8=William D.|title=Intracranial Aneurysms in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=327|issue=13|year=1992|pages=916–920|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJM199209243271303}}</ref><ref name="pmid25632331">{{cite journal |vauthors=Castori M, Voermans NC |title=Neurological manifestations of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome(s): A review |journal=Iran J Neurol |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=190–208 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25632331 |pmc=4300794 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="SchievinkRaissi2010">{{cite journal|last1=Schievink|first1=W. I.|last2=Raissi|first2=S. S.|last3=Maya|first3=M. M.|last4=Velebir|first4=A.|title=Screening for intracranial aneurysms in patients with bicuspid aortic valve|journal=Neurology|volume=74|issue=18|year=2010|pages=1430–1433|issn=0028-3878|doi=10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181dc1acf}}</ref><ref name="pmid28486967">{{cite journal |vauthors=Germain DP |title=Pseudoxanthoma elasticum |journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=85 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28486967 |pmc=5424392 |doi=10.1186/s13023-017-0639-8 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27162847">{{cite journal |vauthors=Farahmand M, Farahangiz S, Yadollahi M |title=Diagnostic Accuracy of Magnetic Resonance Angiography for Detection of Intracranial Aneurysms in Patients with Acute Subarachnoid Hemorrhage; A Comparison to Digital Subtraction Angiography |journal=Bull Emerg Trauma |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=147–51 |date=October 2013 |pmid=27162847 |pmc=4789449 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 382: / Line 382: @@
 ! colspan="11" style="background: #7d7d7d; color: #FFFFFF; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Infectious
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Bacterial [[brain abscess]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Bacterial [[brain abscess]]<br><ref name="HaimesZimmerman1989">{{cite journal|last1=Haimes|first1=AB|last2=Zimmerman|first2=RD|last3=Morgello|first3=S|last4=Weingarten|first4=K|last5=Becker|first5=RD|last6=Jennis|first6=R|last7=Deck|first7=MD|title=MR imaging of brain abscesses|journal=American Journal of Roentgenology|volume=152|issue=5|year=1989|pages=1073–1085|issn=0361-803X|doi=10.2214/ajr.152.5.1073}}</ref><ref name="BrouwerTunkel2014">{{cite journal|last1=Brouwer|first1=Matthijs C.|last2=Tunkel|first2=Allan R.|last3=McKhann|first3=Guy M.|last4=van de Beek|first4=Diederik|title=Brain Abscess|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=5|year=2014|pages=447–456|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMra1301635}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 402: / Line 402: @@
 * The most common causes of [[brain abscess]] are [[Streptococcus]] and [[Staphylococcus]].
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Tuberculosis]]<br><ref name=":0" />
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Tuberculosis]]<br><ref name="MorgadoRuivo2005">{{cite journal|last1=Morgado|first1=Carlos|last2=Ruivo|first2=Nuno|title=Imaging meningo-encephalic tuberculosis|journal=European Journal of Radiology|volume=55|issue=2|year=2005|pages=188–192|issn=0720048X|doi=10.1016/j.ejrad.2005.04.017}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name="pmid19275620">{{cite journal |vauthors=Be NA, Kim KS, Bishai WR, Jain SK |title=Pathogenesis of central nervous system tuberculosis |journal=Curr. Mol. Med. |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=94–9 |date=March 2009 |pmid=19275620 |pmc=4486069 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 423: / Line 423: @@
 * It is associated with [[HIV]] [[infection]]
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Toxoplasmosis]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Toxoplasmosis]]<br><ref name="pmid74807332">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chinn RJ, Wilkinson ID, Hall-Craggs MA, Paley MN, Miller RF, Kendall BE, Newman SP, Harrison MJ |title=Toxoplasmosis and primary central nervous system lymphoma in HIV infection: diagnosis with MR spectroscopy |journal=Radiology |volume=197 |issue=3 |pages=649–54 |date=December 1995 |pmid=7480733 |doi=10.1148/radiology.197.3.7480733 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27348541">{{cite journal |vauthors=Helton KJ, Maron G, Mamcarz E, Leventaki V, Patay Z, Sadighi Z |title=Unusual magnetic resonance imaging presentation of post-BMT cerebral toxoplasmosis masquerading as meningoencephalitis and ventriculitis |journal=Bone Marrow Transplant. |volume=51 |issue=11 |pages=1533–1536 |date=November 2016 |pmid=27348541 |doi=10.1038/bmt.2016.168 |url=}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 441: / Line 441: @@
 * It is associated with [[HIV]] [[infection]]
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Hydatid cyst]]<br><ref name=":0" />
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Hydatid cyst]]<br><ref name="pmid27620198">{{cite journal |vauthors=Taslakian B, Darwish H |title=Intracranial hydatid cyst: imaging findings of a rare disease |journal=BMJ Case Rep |volume=2016 |issue= |pages= |date=September 2016 |pmid=27620198 |pmc=5030532 |doi=10.1136/bcr-2016-216570 |url=}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 459: / Line 459: @@
 * [[Brain]], [[eye]], and [[Spleen|splenic]] [[Cyst|cysts]] may not produce detectable amount of [[antibodies]]
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[CNS]] [[cryptococcosis]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[CNS]] [[cryptococcosis]]<br><ref name="pmid25006721">{{cite journal |vauthors=McCarthy M, Rosengart A, Schuetz AN, Kontoyiannis DP, Walsh TJ |title=Mold infections of the central nervous system |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=371 |issue=2 |pages=150–60 |date=July 2014 |pmid=25006721 |pmc=4840461 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1216008 |url=}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 488: / Line 488: @@
 * Since [[brain]] [[Biopsy|biopsies]] are highly invasive and may may cause [[neurological]] deficits, we [[diagnose]] [[CNS]] [[fungal]] [[Infection|infections]] based on [[laboratory]] and imaging findings
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[CNS]] [[aspergillosis]]<br>
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[CNS]] [[aspergillosis]]<br><ref name="pmid250067212">{{cite journal |vauthors=McCarthy M, Rosengart A, Schuetz AN, Kontoyiannis DP, Walsh TJ |title=Mold infections of the central nervous system |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=371 |issue=2 |pages=150–60 |date=July 2014 |pmid=25006721 |pmc=4840461 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1216008 |url=}}</ref>
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−
@@ Line 514: / Line 514: @@
 ! colspan="11" style="background: #7d7d7d; color: #FFFFFF; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Other
 |-
-| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Brain metastasis]]<br><ref name=":0" />
+| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Brain metastasis]]<br><ref name="pmid29307364">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pope WB |title=Brain metastases: neuroimaging |journal=Handb Clin Neurol |volume=149 |issue= |pages=89–112 |date=2018 |pmid=29307364 |pmc=6118134 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-811161-1.00007-4 |url=}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +
 | style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" | +/−


Brain tumor
CT scan of brain showing brain cancer to left parietal lobe in the peri-ventricular area.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hirnmetastase_MRT-T1_KM.jpg