Second degree AV block differential diagnosis: Difference between revisions

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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|+
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Arrhythmia
! colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Arrhythmia
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Rhythm
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Rhythm
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Rate
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Rate
Line 24: Line 24:
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Co-existing Conditions
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" + |Co-existing Conditions
|-
|-
!'''Atrial Fibrillation (AFib)<ref name="pmid24837984">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lankveld TA, Zeemering S, Crijns HJ, Schotten U |title=The ECG as a tool to determine atrial fibrillation complexity |journal=Heart |volume=100 |issue=14 |pages=1077–84 |date=July 2014 |pmid=24837984 |doi=10.1136/heartjnl-2013-305149 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22518390">{{cite journal |vauthors=Harris K, Edwards D, Mant J |title=How can we best detect atrial fibrillation? |journal=J R Coll Physicians Edinb |volume=42 Suppl 18 |issue= |pages=5–22 |date=2012 |pmid=22518390 |doi=10.4997/JRCPE.2012.S02 |url=}}</ref>'''
! rowspan="3" |Atrioventricular block
!First degree
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
!Second degree
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
!Third degree
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
! colspan="2" |'''Atrial Fibrillation (AFib)<ref name="pmid24837984">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lankveld TA, Zeemering S, Crijns HJ, Schotten U |title=The ECG as a tool to determine atrial fibrillation complexity |journal=Heart |volume=100 |issue=14 |pages=1077–84 |date=July 2014 |pmid=24837984 |doi=10.1136/heartjnl-2013-305149 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22518390">{{cite journal |vauthors=Harris K, Edwards D, Mant J |title=How can we best detect atrial fibrillation? |journal=J R Coll Physicians Edinb |volume=42 Suppl 18 |issue= |pages=5–22 |date=2012 |pmid=22518390 |doi=10.4997/JRCPE.2012.S02 |url=}}</ref>'''
|
|
* Irregularly irregular
* Irregularly irregular
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* Left chamber enlargement
* Left chamber enlargement
|-
|-
!'''[[Atrial Flutter]]'''<ref name="pmid28835836">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cosío FG |title=Atrial Flutter, Typical and Atypical: A Review |journal=Arrhythm Electrophysiol Rev |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=55–62 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28835836 |pmc=5522718 |doi=10.15420/aer.2017.5.2 |url=}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |'''[[Atrial Flutter]]'''<ref name="pmid28835836">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cosío FG |title=Atrial Flutter, Typical and Atypical: A Review |journal=Arrhythm Electrophysiol Rev |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=55–62 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28835836 |pmc=5522718 |doi=10.15420/aer.2017.5.2 |url=}}</ref>
|
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* Regular or Irregular
* Regular or Irregular
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*[[Alcohol]]
*[[Alcohol]]
|-
|-
!'''[[Atrioventricular nodal reentry tachycardia]] ([[AV nodal reentrant tachycardia|AVNRT]])<ref name="pmid27617092">{{cite journal |vauthors=Katritsis DG, Josephson ME |title=Classification, Electrophysiological Features and Therapy of Atrioventricular Nodal Reentrant Tachycardia |journal=Arrhythm Electrophysiol Rev |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=130–5 |date=August 2016 |pmid=27617092 |pmc=5013176 |doi=10.15420/AER.2016.18.2 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20458824">{{cite journal |vauthors=Letsas KP, Weber R, Siklody CH, Mihas CC, Stockinger J, Blum T, Kalusche D, Arentz T |title=Electrocardiographic differentiation of common type atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia from atrioventricular reciprocating tachycardia via a concealed accessory pathway |journal=Acta Cardiol |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=171–6 |date=April 2010 |pmid=20458824 |doi=10.2143/AC.65.2.2047050 |url=}}</ref>'''<ref name="urlAtrioventricular Nodal Reentry Tachycardia (AVNRT) - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf">{{cite web |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499936/ |title=Atrioventricular Nodal Reentry Tachycardia (AVNRT) - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25196716">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schernthaner C, Danmayr F, Strohmer B |title=Coexistence of atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia with other forms of arrhythmias |journal=Med Princ Pract |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=543–50 |date=2014 |pmid=25196716 |pmc=5586929 |doi=10.1159/000365418 |url=}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |'''[[Atrioventricular nodal reentry tachycardia]] ([[AV nodal reentrant tachycardia|AVNRT]])<ref name="pmid27617092">{{cite journal |vauthors=Katritsis DG, Josephson ME |title=Classification, Electrophysiological Features and Therapy of Atrioventricular Nodal Reentrant Tachycardia |journal=Arrhythm Electrophysiol Rev |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=130–5 |date=August 2016 |pmid=27617092 |pmc=5013176 |doi=10.15420/AER.2016.18.2 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20458824">{{cite journal |vauthors=Letsas KP, Weber R, Siklody CH, Mihas CC, Stockinger J, Blum T, Kalusche D, Arentz T |title=Electrocardiographic differentiation of common type atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia from atrioventricular reciprocating tachycardia via a concealed accessory pathway |journal=Acta Cardiol |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=171–6 |date=April 2010 |pmid=20458824 |doi=10.2143/AC.65.2.2047050 |url=}}</ref>'''<ref name="urlAtrioventricular Nodal Reentry Tachycardia (AVNRT) - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf">{{cite web |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499936/ |title=Atrioventricular Nodal Reentry Tachycardia (AVNRT) - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25196716">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schernthaner C, Danmayr F, Strohmer B |title=Coexistence of atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia with other forms of arrhythmias |journal=Med Princ Pract |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=543–50 |date=2014 |pmid=25196716 |pmc=5586929 |doi=10.1159/000365418 |url=}}</ref>
|
|
* Regular
* Regular
Line 101: Line 132:
*[[Atrial tachyarrhythmias]]
*[[Atrial tachyarrhythmias]]
|-
|-
!'''[[Multifocal atrial tachycardia|Multifocal Atrial Tachycardia]]<ref name="pmid2570520">{{cite journal |vauthors=Scher DL, Arsura EL |title=Multifocal atrial tachycardia: mechanisms, clinical correlates, and treatment |journal=Am. Heart J. |volume=118 |issue=3 |pages=574–80 |date=September 1989 |pmid=2570520 |doi=10.1016/0002-8703(89)90275-5 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11884328">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodacre S, Irons R |title=ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Atrial arrhythmias |journal=BMJ |volume=324 |issue=7337 |pages=594–7 |date=March 2002 |pmid=11884328 |pmc=1122515 |doi=10.1136/bmj.324.7337.594 |url=}}</ref>'''
! colspan="2" |'''[[Multifocal atrial tachycardia|Multifocal Atrial Tachycardia]]<ref name="pmid2570520">{{cite journal |vauthors=Scher DL, Arsura EL |title=Multifocal atrial tachycardia: mechanisms, clinical correlates, and treatment |journal=Am. Heart J. |volume=118 |issue=3 |pages=574–80 |date=September 1989 |pmid=2570520 |doi=10.1016/0002-8703(89)90275-5 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11884328">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodacre S, Irons R |title=ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Atrial arrhythmias |journal=BMJ |volume=324 |issue=7337 |pages=594–7 |date=March 2002 |pmid=11884328 |pmc=1122515 |doi=10.1136/bmj.324.7337.594 |url=}}</ref>'''
|
|
* Irregular
* Irregular
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*[[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]] ([[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|COPD]])
*[[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]] ([[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|COPD]])
|-
|-
!'''Paroxysmal Supraventricular Tachycardia'''
! colspan="2" |'''Paroxysmal Supraventricular Tachycardia'''
|
|
* Regular
* Regular
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*[[Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome]]
*[[Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome]]
|-
|-
!'''[[Premature atrial contraction|Premature Atrial Contractrions]] ([[Premature atrial contraction|PAC]])'''<ref name="pmid26316525">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lin CY, Lin YJ, Chen YY, Chang SL, Lo LW, Chao TF, Chung FP, Hu YF, Chong E, Cheng HM, Tuan TC, Liao JN, Chiou CW, Huang JL, Chen SA |title=Prognostic Significance of Premature Atrial Complexes Burden in Prediction of Long-Term Outcome |journal=J Am Heart Assoc |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=e002192 |date=August 2015 |pmid=26316525 |pmc=4599506 |doi=10.1161/JAHA.115.002192 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18063110">{{cite journal |vauthors=Strasburger JF, Cheulkar B, Wichman HJ |title=Perinatal arrhythmias: diagnosis and management |journal=Clin Perinatol |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=627–52, vii–viii |date=December 2007 |pmid=18063110 |pmc=3310372 |doi=10.1016/j.clp.2007.10.002 |url=}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |'''[[Premature atrial contraction|Premature Atrial Contractrions]] ([[Premature atrial contraction|PAC]])'''<ref name="pmid26316525">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lin CY, Lin YJ, Chen YY, Chang SL, Lo LW, Chao TF, Chung FP, Hu YF, Chong E, Cheng HM, Tuan TC, Liao JN, Chiou CW, Huang JL, Chen SA |title=Prognostic Significance of Premature Atrial Complexes Burden in Prediction of Long-Term Outcome |journal=J Am Heart Assoc |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=e002192 |date=August 2015 |pmid=26316525 |pmc=4599506 |doi=10.1161/JAHA.115.002192 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18063110">{{cite journal |vauthors=Strasburger JF, Cheulkar B, Wichman HJ |title=Perinatal arrhythmias: diagnosis and management |journal=Clin Perinatol |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=627–52, vii–viii |date=December 2007 |pmid=18063110 |pmc=3310372 |doi=10.1016/j.clp.2007.10.002 |url=}}</ref>
|
|
* Regular except when disturbed by premature beat(s)
* Regular except when disturbed by premature beat(s)
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* Upright
* Upright
|
|
* > 0.12 second  
* > 0.12 second
* May be shorter than that in normal sinus rhythm (NSR) if the origin of PAC is located closer to the AV node
* May be shorter than that in normal sinus rhythm (NSR) if the origin of PAC is located closer to the AV node
*Ashman’s Phenomenon:
*Ashman’s Phenomenon:
Line 171: Line 202:
*[[Hypercholesterolemia]]
*[[Hypercholesterolemia]]
|-
|-
!'''[[Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome|Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome]]<ref name="pmid24982705">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rao AL, Salerno JC, Asif IM, Drezner JA |title=Evaluation and management of wolff-Parkinson-white in athletes |journal=Sports Health |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=326–32 |date=July 2014 |pmid=24982705 |pmc=4065555 |doi=10.1177/1941738113509059 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10597097">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosner MH, Brady WJ, Kefer MP, Martin ML |title=Electrocardiography in the patient with the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome: diagnostic and initial therapeutic issues |journal=Am J Emerg Med |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=705–14 |date=November 1999 |pmid=10597097 |doi=10.1016/s0735-6757(99)90167-5 |url=}}</ref>'''
! colspan="2" |'''[[Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome|Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome]]<ref name="pmid24982705">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rao AL, Salerno JC, Asif IM, Drezner JA |title=Evaluation and management of wolff-Parkinson-white in athletes |journal=Sports Health |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=326–32 |date=July 2014 |pmid=24982705 |pmc=4065555 |doi=10.1177/1941738113509059 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10597097">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosner MH, Brady WJ, Kefer MP, Martin ML |title=Electrocardiography in the patient with the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome: diagnostic and initial therapeutic issues |journal=Am J Emerg Med |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=705–14 |date=November 1999 |pmid=10597097 |doi=10.1016/s0735-6757(99)90167-5 |url=}}</ref>'''
|
|
* Regular
* Regular
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*[[Tuberous sclerosis]]
*[[Tuberous sclerosis]]
|-
|-
!'''[[Ventricular fibrillation|Ventricular Fibrillation]] (VF)'''<ref name="pmid27899944">{{cite journal |vauthors=Glinge C, Sattler S, Jabbari R, Tfelt-Hansen J |title=Epidemiology and genetics of ventricular fibrillation during acute myocardial infarction |journal=J Geriatr Cardiol |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=789–797 |date=September 2016 |pmid=27899944 |pmc=5122505 |doi=10.11909/j.issn.1671-5411.2016.09.006 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11334828">{{cite journal |vauthors=Samie FH, Jalife J |title=Mechanisms underlying ventricular tachycardia and its transition to ventricular fibrillation in the structurally normal heart |journal=Cardiovasc. Res. |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=242–50 |date=May 2001 |pmid=11334828 |doi=10.1016/s0008-6363(00)00289-3 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20142817">{{cite journal |vauthors=Adabag AS, Luepker RV, Roger VL, Gersh BJ |title=Sudden cardiac death: epidemiology and risk factors |journal=Nat Rev Cardiol |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=216–25 |date=April 2010 |pmid=20142817 |pmc=5014372 |doi=10.1038/nrcardio.2010.3 |url=}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |'''[[Ventricular fibrillation|Ventricular Fibrillation]] (VF)'''<ref name="pmid27899944">{{cite journal |vauthors=Glinge C, Sattler S, Jabbari R, Tfelt-Hansen J |title=Epidemiology and genetics of ventricular fibrillation during acute myocardial infarction |journal=J Geriatr Cardiol |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=789–797 |date=September 2016 |pmid=27899944 |pmc=5122505 |doi=10.11909/j.issn.1671-5411.2016.09.006 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11334828">{{cite journal |vauthors=Samie FH, Jalife J |title=Mechanisms underlying ventricular tachycardia and its transition to ventricular fibrillation in the structurally normal heart |journal=Cardiovasc. Res. |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=242–50 |date=May 2001 |pmid=11334828 |doi=10.1016/s0008-6363(00)00289-3 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20142817">{{cite journal |vauthors=Adabag AS, Luepker RV, Roger VL, Gersh BJ |title=Sudden cardiac death: epidemiology and risk factors |journal=Nat Rev Cardiol |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=216–25 |date=April 2010 |pmid=20142817 |pmc=5014372 |doi=10.1038/nrcardio.2010.3 |url=}}</ref>
|
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* Irregular
* Irregular
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*[[Stroke]]
*[[Stroke]]
|-
|-
!'''[[Ventricular tachycardia|Ventricular Tachycardia]]'''<ref name="pmid19252119">{{cite journal |vauthors=Koplan BA, Stevenson WG |title=Ventricular tachycardia and sudden cardiac death |journal=Mayo Clin. Proc. |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=289–97 |date=March 2009 |pmid=19252119 |pmc=2664600 |doi=10.1016/S0025-6196(11)61149-X |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21505622">{{cite journal |vauthors=Levis JT |title=ECG Diagnosis: Monomorphic Ventricular Tachycardia |journal=Perm J |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=65 |date=2011 |pmid=21505622 |pmc=3048638 |doi=10.7812/tpp/10-130 |url=}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |'''[[Ventricular tachycardia|Ventricular Tachycardia]]'''<ref name="pmid19252119">{{cite journal |vauthors=Koplan BA, Stevenson WG |title=Ventricular tachycardia and sudden cardiac death |journal=Mayo Clin. Proc. |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=289–97 |date=March 2009 |pmid=19252119 |pmc=2664600 |doi=10.1016/S0025-6196(11)61149-X |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21505622">{{cite journal |vauthors=Levis JT |title=ECG Diagnosis: Monomorphic Ventricular Tachycardia |journal=Perm J |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=65 |date=2011 |pmid=21505622 |pmc=3048638 |doi=10.7812/tpp/10-130 |url=}}</ref>
|
|
* Regular
* Regular

Revision as of 03:26, 9 April 2020

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [2]

Overview

Second degree AV block must be differentiated from different abnormal and irregular cardiac rhythm as atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, atriventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia, multifocal atrial tachycardia, and paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia.

Differentiating Second degree AV block from other Diseases

  • Second degree AV Block may be simulated by blocked PACs. Must be very careful to assure that the P to P intervals are constant.
  • 2:1 conduction may simulate sinus bradycardia as the blocked P waves may fall on the preceding T waves.

Differentiating Second degree heart block From Other Diseases


Arrhythmia Rhythm Rate P wave PR Interval QRS Complex Response to Maneuvers Epidemiology Co-existing Conditions
Atrioventricular block First degree
Second degree
Third degree
Atrial Fibrillation (AFib)[1][2]
  • Irregularly irregular
  • Absent
  • Fibrillatory waves
  • Absent
  • Less than 0.12 seconds, consistent, and normal in morphology in the absence of aberrant conduction
  • 2.7–6.1 million people in the United States have AFib
  • 2% of people younger than age 65 have AFib, while about 9% of people aged 65 years or older have AFib
Atrial Flutter[3]
  • Regular or Irregular
  • 75 (4:1 block), 100 (3:1 block) and 150 (2:1 block) beats per minute (bpm), but 150 is more common
  • Sawtooth pattern of P waves at 250 to 350 bpm
  • Biphasic deflection in V1
  • Varies depending upon the magnitude of the block, but is short
  • Less than 0.12 seconds, consistent, and normal in morphology
  • Conduction may vary in response to drugs and maneuvers dropping the rate from 150 to 100 or to 75 bpm
Atrioventricular nodal reentry tachycardia (AVNRT)[4][5][6][7]
  • Regular
  • 140-280 bpm
  • Slow-Fast AVNRT:
    • Pseudo-S wave in leads II, III, and AVF
    • Pseudo-R' in lead V1.
  • Fast-Slow AVNRT
  • Slow-Slow AVNRT
  • Inverted, superimposed on or buried within the QRS complex (pseudo R prime in V1/pseudo S wave in inferior leads)
  • Absent (P wave can appear after the QRS complex and before the T wave, and in atypical AVNRT, the P wave can appear just before the QRS complex)
  • Less than 0.12 seconds, consistent, and normal in morphology in the absence of aberrant conduction
  • QRS alternans may be present
Multifocal Atrial Tachycardia[8][9]
  • Irregular
  • Atrial rate is > 100 beats per minute
  • Varying morphology from at least three different foci
  • Absence of one dominant atrial pacemaker, can be mistaken for atrial fibrillation if the P waves are of low amplitude
  • Less than 0.12 seconds, consistent, and normal in morphology
Paroxysmal Supraventricular Tachycardia
  • Regular
  • 150 and 240 bpm
  • Absent
  • Hidden in QRS
  • Absent
  • Narrow complexes (< 0.12 s)
Premature Atrial Contractrions (PAC)[10][11]
  • Regular except when disturbed by premature beat(s)
  • 80-120 bpm
  • Upright
  • > 0.12 second
  • May be shorter than that in normal sinus rhythm (NSR) if the origin of PAC is located closer to the AV node
  • Ashman’s Phenomenon:
  • Usually narrow (< 0.12 s)
Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome[12][13]
  • Regular
  • Atrial rate is nearly 300 bpm and ventricular rate is at 150 bpm
  • Less than 0.12 seconds
  • A delta wave and evidence of ventricular pre-excitation if there is conduction to the ventricle via ante-grade conduction down an accessory pathway
  • A delta wave and pre-excitation may not be present because bypass tracts do not conduct ante-grade.
Ventricular Fibrillation (VF)[14][15][16]
  • Irregular
  • 150 to 500 bpm
  • Absent
  • Absent
  • Absent (R on T phenomenon in the setting of ischemia)
Ventricular Tachycardia[17][18]
  • Regular
  • > 100 bpm (150-200 bpm common)
  • Absent
  • Absent
  • Initial R wave in V1, initial r > 40 ms in V1/V2, notched S in V1, initial R in aVR, lead II R wave peak time ≥50 ms, no RS in V1-V6, and atrioventricular dissociation
  • Wide complex, QRS duration > 120 milliseconds
  • 5-10% of patients presenting with AMI

The table below provides information on the differential diagnosis of ventricular tachycardia in terms of ECG appearance:

Disease Name Causes ECG Characteristics ECG view
Ventricular tachycardia [19][20][21][22][23]
[24]
Ventricular fibrillation [17][25][26][27]
[28]
Ventricular flutter [29][30][31]
[32]
Asystole [33][34]
  • There is no electrical activity in the asystole
[35]
Pulseless electrical activity [36][37]
[38]
Torsade de Pointes [39][40][41]
  1. Paroxysms of VT with irregular RR intervals.
  2. A ventricular rate between 200 and 250 beats per minute.
  3. Two or more cycles of QRS complexes with alternating polarity.
  4. Changing amplitude of the QRS complexes in each cycle in a sinusoidal fashion.
  5. Prolongation of the QT interval.
  6. Is often initiated by a PVC with a long coupling interval, R on T phenomenon.
  7. There are usually 5 to 20 complexes in each cycle.
[42]

References

  1. ↑ Lankveld TA, Zeemering S, Crijns HJ, Schotten U (July 2014). "The ECG as a tool to determine atrial fibrillation complexity". Heart. 100 (14): 1077–84. doi:10.1136/heartjnl-2013-305149. PMID 24837984.
  2. ↑ Harris K, Edwards D, Mant J (2012). "How can we best detect atrial fibrillation?". J R Coll Physicians Edinb. 42 Suppl 18: 5–22. doi:10.4997/JRCPE.2012.S02. PMID 22518390.
  3. ↑ Cosío FG (June 2017). "Atrial Flutter, Typical and Atypical: A Review". Arrhythm Electrophysiol Rev. 6 (2): 55–62. doi:10.15420/aer.2017.5.2. PMC 5522718. PMID 28835836.
  4. ↑ Katritsis DG, Josephson ME (August 2016). "Classification, Electrophysiological Features and Therapy of Atrioventricular Nodal Reentrant Tachycardia". Arrhythm Electrophysiol Rev. 5 (2): 130–5. doi:10.15420/AER.2016.18.2. PMC 5013176. PMID 27617092.
  5. ↑ Letsas KP, Weber R, Siklody CH, Mihas CC, Stockinger J, Blum T, Kalusche D, Arentz T (April 2010). "Electrocardiographic differentiation of common type atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia from atrioventricular reciprocating tachycardia via a concealed accessory pathway". Acta Cardiol. 65 (2): 171–6. doi:10.2143/AC.65.2.2047050. PMID 20458824.
  6. ↑ "Atrioventricular Nodal Reentry Tachycardia (AVNRT) - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf".
  7. ↑ Schernthaner C, Danmayr F, Strohmer B (2014). "Coexistence of atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia with other forms of arrhythmias". Med Princ Pract. 23 (6): 543–50. doi:10.1159/000365418. PMC 5586929. PMID 25196716.
  8. ↑ Scher DL, Arsura EL (September 1989). "Multifocal atrial tachycardia: mechanisms, clinical correlates, and treatment". Am. Heart J. 118 (3): 574–80. doi:10.1016/0002-8703(89)90275-5. PMID 2570520.
  9. ↑ Goodacre S, Irons R (March 2002). "ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Atrial arrhythmias". BMJ. 324 (7337): 594–7. doi:10.1136/bmj.324.7337.594. PMC 1122515. PMID 11884328.
  10. ↑ Lin CY, Lin YJ, Chen YY, Chang SL, Lo LW, Chao TF, Chung FP, Hu YF, Chong E, Cheng HM, Tuan TC, Liao JN, Chiou CW, Huang JL, Chen SA (August 2015). "Prognostic Significance of Premature Atrial Complexes Burden in Prediction of Long-Term Outcome". J Am Heart Assoc. 4 (9): e002192. doi:10.1161/JAHA.115.002192. PMC 4599506. PMID 26316525.
  11. ↑ Strasburger JF, Cheulkar B, Wichman HJ (December 2007). "Perinatal arrhythmias: diagnosis and management". Clin Perinatol. 34 (4): 627–52, vii–viii. doi:10.1016/j.clp.2007.10.002. PMC 3310372. PMID 18063110.
  12. ↑ Rao AL, Salerno JC, Asif IM, Drezner JA (July 2014). "Evaluation and management of wolff-Parkinson-white in athletes". Sports Health. 6 (4): 326–32. doi:10.1177/1941738113509059. PMC 4065555. PMID 24982705.
  13. ↑ Rosner MH, Brady WJ, Kefer MP, Martin ML (November 1999). "Electrocardiography in the patient with the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome: diagnostic and initial therapeutic issues". Am J Emerg Med. 17 (7): 705–14. doi:10.1016/s0735-6757(99)90167-5. PMID 10597097.
  14. ↑ Glinge C, Sattler S, Jabbari R, Tfelt-Hansen J (September 2016). "Epidemiology and genetics of ventricular fibrillation during acute myocardial infarction". J Geriatr Cardiol. 13 (9): 789–797. doi:10.11909/j.issn.1671-5411.2016.09.006. PMC 5122505. PMID 27899944.
  15. ↑ Samie FH, Jalife J (May 2001). "Mechanisms underlying ventricular tachycardia and its transition to ventricular fibrillation in the structurally normal heart". Cardiovasc. Res. 50 (2): 242–50. doi:10.1016/s0008-6363(00)00289-3. PMID 11334828.
  16. ↑ Adabag AS, Luepker RV, Roger VL, Gersh BJ (April 2010). "Sudden cardiac death: epidemiology and risk factors". Nat Rev Cardiol. 7 (4): 216–25. doi:10.1038/nrcardio.2010.3. PMC 5014372. PMID 20142817.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Koplan BA, Stevenson WG (March 2009). "Ventricular tachycardia and sudden cardiac death". Mayo Clin. Proc. 84 (3): 289–97. doi:10.1016/S0025-6196(11)61149-X. PMC 2664600. PMID 19252119.
  18. ↑ Levis JT (2011). "ECG Diagnosis: Monomorphic Ventricular Tachycardia". Perm J. 15 (1): 65. doi:10.7812/tpp/10-130. PMC 3048638. PMID 21505622.
  19. ↑ Ajijola, Olujimi A.; Tung, Roderick; Shivkumar, Kalyanam (2014). "Ventricular tachycardia in ischemic heart disease substrates". Indian Heart Journal. 66: S24–S34. doi:10.1016/j.ihj.2013.12.039. ISSN 0019-4832.
  20. ↑ Meja Lopez, Eliany; Malhotra, Rohit (2019). "Ventricular Tachycardia in Structural Heart Disease". Journal of Innovations in Cardiac Rhythm Management. 10 (8): 3762–3773. doi:10.19102/icrm.2019.100801. ISSN 2156-3977.
  21. ↑ Coughtrie, Abigail L; Behr, Elijah R; Layton, Deborah; Marshall, Vanessa; Camm, A John; Shakir, Saad A W (2017). "Drugs and life-threatening ventricular arrhythmia risk: results from the DARE study cohort". BMJ Open. 7 (10): e016627. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016627. ISSN 2044-6055.
  22. ↑ El-Sherif, Nabil (2001). "Mechanism of Ventricular Arrhythmias in the Long QT Syndrome: On Hermeneutics". Journal of Cardiovascular Electrophysiology. 12 (8): 973–976. doi:10.1046/j.1540-8167.2001.00973.x. ISSN 1045-3873.
  23. ↑ de Riva, Marta; Watanabe, Masaya; Zeppenfeld, Katja (2015). "Twelve-Lead ECG of Ventricular Tachycardia in Structural Heart Disease". Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology. 8 (4): 951–962. doi:10.1161/CIRCEP.115.002847. ISSN 1941-3149.
  24. ↑ ECG found in of https://en.ecgpedia.org/index.php?title=Main_Page
  25. ↑ Maury P, Sacher F, Rollin A, Mondoly P, Duparc A, Zeppenfeld K, Hascoet S (May 2017). "Ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in tetralogy of Fallot". Arch Cardiovasc Dis. 110 (5): 354–362. doi:10.1016/j.acvd.2016.12.006. PMID 28222965.
  26. ↑ Saumarez RC, Camm AJ, Panagos A, Gill JS, Stewart JT, de Belder MA, Simpson IA, McKenna WJ (August 1992). "Ventricular fibrillation in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is associated with increased fractionation of paced right ventricular electrograms". Circulation. 86 (2): 467–74. doi:10.1161/01.cir.86.2.467. PMID 1638716.
  27. ↑ Bektas, Firat; Soyuncu, Secgin (2012). "Hypokalemia-induced Ventricular Fibrillation". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 42 (2): 184–185. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2010.05.079. ISSN 0736-4679.
  28. ↑ ECG found in https://en.ecgpedia.org/index.php?title=Main_Page
  29. ↑ Thies, Karl-Christian; Boos, Karin; Müller-Deile, Kai; Ohrdorf, Wolfgang; Beushausen, Thomas; Townsend, Peter (2000). "Ventricular flutter in a neonate—severe electrolyte imbalance caused by urinary tract infection in the presence of urinary tract malformation". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 18 (1): 47–50. doi:10.1016/S0736-4679(99)00161-4. ISSN 0736-4679.
  30. ↑ Koster, Rudolph W.; Wellens, Hein J.J. (1976). "Quinidine-induced ventricular flutter and fibrillation without digitalis therapy". The American Journal of Cardiology. 38 (4): 519–523. doi:10.1016/0002-9149(76)90471-9. ISSN 0002-9149.
  31. ↑ Dhurandhar RW, Nademanee K, Goldman AM (1978). "Ventricular tachycardia-flutter associated with disopyramide therapy: a report of three cases". Heart Lung. 7 (5): 783–7. PMID 250503.
  32. ↑ ECG found in https://en.ecgpedia.org/index.php?title=Main_Page
  33. ↑ ACLS: Principles and Practice. p. 71-87. Dallas: American Heart Association, 2003. ISBN 0-87493-341-2.
  34. ↑ ACLS for Experienced Providers. p. 3-5. Dallas: American Heart Association, 2003. ISBN 0-87493-424-9.
  35. ↑ ECG found in https://en.ecgpedia.org/index.php?title=Main_Page
  36. ↑ "2005 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care - Part 7.2: Management of Cardiac Arrest." Circulation 2005; 112: IV-58 - IV-66.
  37. ↑ Foster B, Twelve Lead Electrocardiography, 2nd edition, 2007
  38. ↑ ECG found in wikimedia Commons
  39. ↑ Li M, Ramos LG (July 2017). "Drug-Induced QT Prolongation And Torsades de Pointes". P T. 42 (7): 473–477. PMC 5481298. PMID 28674475.
  40. ↑ Sharain, Korosh; May, Adam M.; Gersh, Bernard J. (2015). "Chronic Alcoholism and the Danger of Profound Hypomagnesemia". The American Journal of Medicine. 128 (12): e17–e18. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.06.051. ISSN 0002-9343.
  41. ↑ Khan IA (2001). "Twelve-lead electrocardiogram of torsades de pointes". Tex Heart Inst J. 28 (1): 69. PMC 101137. PMID 11330748.
  42. ↑ ECG found in https://en.ecgpedia.org/index.php?title=Main_Page


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