Pulmonic regurgitation epidemiology and demographics: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
The prevalence of mild [[pulmonary | The [[prevalence]] of mild [[pulmonary regurgitation]] (PR) is present in 40% to 78% of [[patients]] with normal [[anatomy]] of the [[pulmonary valve]]. In [[patients]] born with [[congenital heart disease]], 20% of [[patients]] have associated abnormalities of the [[pulmonary valve]] or the [[Right ventricular outflow tract obstruction|right ventricular outlet obstruction]]. The [[incidence]] and [[prevalence]] of [[PR]] increase with age. 24% of deaths due to [[valvular heart disease]] are attributed to [[tricuspid valve]] and [[pulmonic valve]] abnormalities combined. There is one study supporting the increased [[prevalence]] of [[PR]] among women. In developing countries [[PAH|Pulmonary hypertension]] (PAH) is primarily due to [[rheumatic heart disease]] (RHD) which is rare in developed countries. [[PAH]] is a major cause of secondary [[PR]]. | ||
==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ||
===Prevalence=== | ===Prevalence=== | ||
*The prevalence of [[valvular heart disease]] in U.S. population is estimated to be 2.5%. About 13% of U.S population born before 1943 have [[valvular heart disease]].<ref name="urlValvular Heart Disease | cdc.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/valvular_disease.htm |title=Valvular Heart Disease | cdc.gov |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | *The [[prevalence]] of [[valvular heart disease]] in U.S. population is estimated to be 2.5%. About 13% of U.S [[population]] born before 1943 have [[valvular heart disease]].<ref name="urlValvular Heart Disease | cdc.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/valvular_disease.htm |title=Valvular Heart Disease | cdc.gov |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
*The [[prevalence]] of mild [[PR]] is present in 40% to 78% of [[patients]] with normal [[pulmonary valve]] | *The [[prevalence]] of mild [[PR]] is present in 40% to 78% of [[patients]] with normal [[anatomy]] of the [[pulmonary valve]].<ref name="pmid2784023">{{cite journal| author=Choong CY, Abascal VM, Weyman J, Levine RA, Gentile F, Thomas JD et al.| title=Prevalence of valvular regurgitation by Doppler echocardiography in patients with structurally normal hearts by two-dimensional echocardiography. | journal=Am Heart J | year= 1989 | volume= 117 | issue= 3 | pages= 636-42 | pmid=2784023 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2784023 }} </ref><ref name="ZoghbiAdams2017">{{cite journal|last1=Zoghbi|first1=William A.|last2=Adams|first2=David|last3=Bonow|first3=Robert O.|last4=Enriquez-Sarano|first4=Maurice|last5=Foster|first5=Elyse|last6=Grayburn|first6=Paul A.|last7=Hahn|first7=Rebecca T.|last8=Han|first8=Yuchi|last9=Hung|first9=Judy|last10=Lang|first10=Roberto M.|last11=Little|first11=Stephen H.|last12=Shah|first12=Dipan J.|last13=Shernan|first13=Stanton|last14=Thavendiranathan|first14=Paaladinesh|last15=Thomas|first15=James D.|last16=Weissman|first16=Neil J.|title=Recommendations for Noninvasive Evaluation of Native Valvular Regurgitation|journal=Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography|volume=30|issue=4|year=2017|pages=303–371|issn=08947317|doi=10.1016/j.echo.2017.01.007}}</ref><ref name="pmid3382565">{{cite journal| author=Takao S, Miyatake K, Izumi S, Okamoto M, Kinoshita N, Nakagawa H et al.| title=Clinical implications of pulmonary regurgitation in healthy individuals: detection by cross sectional pulsed Doppler echocardiography. | journal=Br Heart J | year= 1988 | volume= 59 | issue= 5 | pages= 542-50 | pmid=3382565 | doi= | pmc=1276894 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3382565 }} </ref><ref name="pmid2310593">{{cite journal| author=Klein AL, Burstow DJ, Tajik AJ, Zachariah PK, Taliercio CP, Taylor CL et al.| title=Age-related prevalence of valvular regurgitation in normal subjects: a comprehensive color flow examination of 118 volunteers. | journal=J Am Soc Echocardiogr | year= 1990 | volume= 3 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=2310593 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2310593 }} </ref> | ||
*In 1987, the prevalence of [[PR]] in [[patients]] with structurally normal hearts was estimated to be 5% in Boston area population, USA.<ref name="pmid2784023">{{cite journal| author=Choong CY, Abascal VM, Weyman J, Levine RA, Gentile F, Thomas JD et al.| title=Prevalence of valvular regurgitation by Doppler echocardiography in patients with structurally normal hearts by two-dimensional echocardiography. | journal=Am Heart J | year= 1989 | volume= 117 | issue= 3 | pages= 636-42 | pmid=2784023 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2784023 }} </ref> | *In 1987, the [[prevalence]] of [[PR]] in [[patients]] with structurally normal [[heart|hearts]] was estimated to be 5% in Boston area [[population]], USA.<ref name="pmid2784023">{{cite journal| author=Choong CY, Abascal VM, Weyman J, Levine RA, Gentile F, Thomas JD et al.| title=Prevalence of valvular regurgitation by Doppler echocardiography in patients with structurally normal hearts by two-dimensional echocardiography. | journal=Am Heart J | year= 1989 | volume= 117 | issue= 3 | pages= 636-42 | pmid=2784023 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2784023 }} </ref> | ||
*In 1990, the prevalence of [[PR]] in normal [[patients]] (21 - 82 years) was estimated to be 31%.<ref name="pmid2310593">{{cite journal| author=Klein AL, Burstow DJ, Tajik AJ, Zachariah PK, Taliercio CP, Taylor CL et al.| title=Age-related prevalence of valvular regurgitation in normal subjects: a comprehensive color flow examination of 118 volunteers. | journal=J Am Soc Echocardiogr | year= 1990 | volume= 3 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=2310593 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2310593 }} </ref> | *In 1990, the [[prevalence]] of [[PR]] in normal [[patients]] (21 - 82 years) was estimated to be 31%.<ref name="pmid2310593">{{cite journal| author=Klein AL, Burstow DJ, Tajik AJ, Zachariah PK, Taliercio CP, Taylor CL et al.| title=Age-related prevalence of valvular regurgitation in normal subjects: a comprehensive color flow examination of 118 volunteers. | journal=J Am Soc Echocardiogr | year= 1990 | volume= 3 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=2310593 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2310593 }} </ref> | ||
*In 1992, the prevalence of [[PR]] in children (birth- 14 years) with structurally normal hearts was estimated to be 21.9% in Jerusalem, Israel population. [[Pulmonic regurgitation]] was the most common of all valvular regurgitations detected among children.<ref name="BrandDollberg1992">{{cite journal|last1=Brand|first1=Abraham|last2=Dollberg|first2=Shaul|last3=Keren|first3=Andre|title=The prevalence of valvular regurgitation in children with structurally normal hearts: A color Doppler echocardiographic study|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=123|issue=1|year=1992|pages=177–180|issn=00028703|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(92)90763-L}}</ref> | *In 1992, the [[prevalence]] of [[PR]] in children (birth- 14 years) with structurally normal [[heart|hearts]] was estimated to be 21.9% in Jerusalem, Israel [[population]]. [[Pulmonic regurgitation]] was the most common of all valvular regurgitations detected among children.<ref name="BrandDollberg1992">{{cite journal|last1=Brand|first1=Abraham|last2=Dollberg|first2=Shaul|last3=Keren|first3=Andre|title=The prevalence of valvular regurgitation in children with structurally normal hearts: A color Doppler echocardiographic study|journal=American Heart Journal|volume=123|issue=1|year=1992|pages=177–180|issn=00028703|doi=10.1016/0002-8703(92)90763-L}}</ref> | ||
===Incidence=== | ===Incidence=== | ||
| Line 18: | Line 18: | ||
===Case-fatality rate/Mortality rate=== | ===Case-fatality rate/Mortality rate=== | ||
* | *In 2017, [[CDC]] reported that 24% of deaths due to [[valvular heart disease]] were attributed to [[tricuspid valve]] and [[pulmonic valve]] abnormalities combined.<ref name="urlValvular Heart Disease | cdc.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/valvular_disease.htm |title=Valvular Heart Disease | cdc.gov |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
===Age=== | ===Age=== | ||
*[[Patients]] of all [[age]] groups may [[Development|develop]] [[pulmonic regurgitation]] (PR) depending on the etiology. | *[[Patients]] of all [[age]] groups may [[Development|develop]] [[pulmonic regurgitation]] (PR) depending on the etiology. | ||
*In the U.S population, the prevalence of [[valvular heart disease]] is higher in older adults.<ref name="urlValvular Heart Disease | cdc.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/valvular_disease.htm |title=Valvular Heart Disease | cdc.gov |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | *In the U.S [[population]], the [[prevalence]] of [[valvular heart disease]] is higher in older adults.<ref name="urlValvular Heart Disease | cdc.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/valvular_disease.htm |title=Valvular Heart Disease | cdc.gov |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
* In 1989, a meta‐analysis reported that 29% of the [[patients]] with isolated congenital [[PR]] develop symptoms within 40 years. The risk of development of symptoms demonstrated an increase with age, particularly after 40 years.<ref name="ShimazakiBlackstone2008">{{cite journal|last1=Shimazaki|first1=Y.|last2=Blackstone|first2=E.|last3=Kirklin|first3=J.|title=The Natural History of Isolated Congenital Pulmonary Valve Incompetence: Surgical Implications|journal=The Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeon|volume=32|issue=04|year=2008|pages=257–259|issn=0171-6425|doi=10.1055/s-2007-1023399}}</ref> | * In 1989, a meta‐analysis reported that 29% of the [[patients]] with isolated congenital [[PR]] develop symptoms within 40 years. The risk of development of symptoms demonstrated an increase with age, particularly after 40 years.<ref name="ShimazakiBlackstone2008">{{cite journal|last1=Shimazaki|first1=Y.|last2=Blackstone|first2=E.|last3=Kirklin|first3=J.|title=The Natural History of Isolated Congenital Pulmonary Valve Incompetence: Surgical Implications|journal=The Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeon|volume=32|issue=04|year=2008|pages=257–259|issn=0171-6425|doi=10.1055/s-2007-1023399}}</ref> | ||
*In 1990, the incidence of mild degree valvular regurgitation in normal subjects was estimated to increase with [[age]].<ref name="pmid2310593">{{cite journal| author=Klein AL, Burstow DJ, Tajik AJ, Zachariah PK, Taliercio CP, Taylor CL et al.| title=Age-related prevalence of valvular regurgitation in normal subjects: a comprehensive color flow examination of 118 volunteers. | journal=J Am Soc Echocardiogr | year= 1990 | volume= 3 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=2310593 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2310593 }} </ref> | *In 1990, the [[incidence]] of mild degree valvular regurgitation in normal subjects was estimated to increase with [[age]].<ref name="pmid2310593">{{cite journal| author=Klein AL, Burstow DJ, Tajik AJ, Zachariah PK, Taliercio CP, Taylor CL et al.| title=Age-related prevalence of valvular regurgitation in normal subjects: a comprehensive color flow examination of 118 volunteers. | journal=J Am Soc Echocardiogr | year= 1990 | volume= 3 | issue= 1 | pages= 54-63 | pmid=2310593 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2310593 }} </ref> | ||
*In 2017, the [[incidence]] of [[PR]] in Tibetans (one of the highest cities in the world) was found to increase with age.<ref name="pmid28937038">{{cite journal |vauthors=Yang Y, Chen YD, Feng B, Ji ZX, Mao W, Zhi G |title=Factors Related to Ventricular Size and Valvular Regurgitation in Healthy Tibetans in Lhasa |journal=Chin. Med. J. |volume=130 |issue=19 |pages=2316–2320 |date=October 2017 |pmid=28937038 |pmc=5634082 |doi=10.4103/0366-6999.215327 |url=}}</ref> | |||
===Race=== | ===Race=== | ||
| Line 30: | Line 31: | ||
===Gender=== | ===Gender=== | ||
* | *In 2017, [[PR|Pulmonic regurgitation]] (PR) was found to be more [[prevalence|prevalent]] in Tibetan women.<ref name="pmid28937038">{{cite journal |vauthors=Yang Y, Chen YD, Feng B, Ji ZX, Mao W, Zhi G |title=Factors Related to Ventricular Size and Valvular Regurgitation in Healthy Tibetans in Lhasa |journal=Chin. Med. J. |volume=130 |issue=19 |pages=2316–2320 |date=October 2017 |pmid=28937038 |pmc=5634082 |doi=10.4103/0366-6999.215327 |url=}}</ref> | ||
===Developed Countries=== | ===Developed Countries=== | ||
*In developed countries such as the United States, [[PAH|Pulmonary hypertension]] (PAH) is primarily due to left heart disease. Other conditions that cause [[PAH]] include [[sickle cell disease]]; [[pulmonary embolus]], and [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]] (COPD).<ref name="urlPulmonary Hypertension | NHLBI, NIH">{{cite web |url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/pulmonary-hypertension#:~:text=In%20the%20United%20States%2C%20the,obstructive%20pulmonary%20disease%20(COPD). |title=Pulmonary Hypertension | NHLBI, NIH |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | *In developed countries such as the United States, [[PAH|Pulmonary hypertension]] (PAH) is primarily due to left [[heart]] disease. Other conditions that cause [[PAH]] include [[sickle cell disease]]; [[pulmonary embolus]], and [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]] (COPD).<ref name="urlPulmonary Hypertension | NHLBI, NIH">{{cite web |url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/pulmonary-hypertension#:~:text=In%20the%20United%20States%2C%20the,obstructive%20pulmonary%20disease%20(COPD). |title=Pulmonary Hypertension | NHLBI, NIH |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> [[PAH]] is a major cause of secondary [[PR]]. | ||
*[[Rheumatic heart disease]] (RHD) is not a common cause of [[PAH]] or [[PR]] in developed countries. Due to the early detection and development of treatment strategies [[RHD]] is rare in developed countries.<ref name="pmid25076991">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bhagavatula SK, Idrees MM |title=Saudi Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension: Challenges in managing pulmonary hypertension in the developing countries |journal=Ann Thorac Med |volume=9 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S127–30 |date=July 2014 |pmid=25076991 |pmc=4114281 |doi=10.4103/1817-1737.134059 |url=}}</ref><ref name="VaideeswarButany2016">{{cite journal|last1=Vaideeswar|first1=P.|last2=Butany|first2=J.|title=Valvular Heart Disease|year=2016|pages=485–528|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-420219-1.00012-4}}</ref> | *[[Rheumatic heart disease]] (RHD) is not a common cause of [[PAH]] or [[PR]] in developed countries. Due to the early detection and development of treatment strategies [[RHD]] is rare in developed countries.<ref name="pmid25076991">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bhagavatula SK, Idrees MM |title=Saudi Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension: Challenges in managing pulmonary hypertension in the developing countries |journal=Ann Thorac Med |volume=9 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S127–30 |date=July 2014 |pmid=25076991 |pmc=4114281 |doi=10.4103/1817-1737.134059 |url=}}</ref><ref name="VaideeswarButany2016">{{cite journal|last1=Vaideeswar|first1=P.|last2=Butany|first2=J.|title=Valvular Heart Disease|year=2016|pages=485–528|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-420219-1.00012-4}}</ref> | ||
===Developing Countries=== | ===Developing Countries=== | ||
*In developing countries [[PAH|Pulmonary hypertension]] (PAH) is primarily due to [[rheumatic heart disease]] (RHD), [[schistosomiasis]], [[congenital heart disease]], [[hemolytic diseases]]. [[PAH]] is a major cause of secondary [[PR]]. The burden of [[PAH]] is greater in developing than developed countries.<ref name="pmid25076991">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bhagavatula SK, Idrees MM |title=Saudi Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension: Challenges in managing pulmonary hypertension in the developing countries |journal=Ann Thorac Med |volume=9 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S127–30 |date=July 2014 |pmid=25076991 |pmc=4114281 |doi=10.4103/1817-1737.134059 |url=}}</ref><ref name="ButrousGhofrani2008">{{cite journal|last1=Butrous|first1=Ghazwan|last2=Ghofrani|first2=Hossein Ardeschir|last3=Grimminger|first3=Friedrich|title=Pulmonary Vascular Disease in the Developing World|journal=Circulation|volume=118|issue=17|year=2008|pages=1758–1766|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.727289}}</ref> | *In developing countries [[PAH|Pulmonary hypertension]] (PAH) is primarily due to [[rheumatic heart disease]] (RHD), [[schistosomiasis]], [[congenital heart disease]], [[Hemolytic disease of the newborn|hemolytic diseases]]. [[PAH]] is a major cause of secondary [[PR]]. The burden of [[PAH]] is greater in developing than developed countries.<ref name="pmid25076991">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bhagavatula SK, Idrees MM |title=Saudi Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension: Challenges in managing pulmonary hypertension in the developing countries |journal=Ann Thorac Med |volume=9 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S127–30 |date=July 2014 |pmid=25076991 |pmc=4114281 |doi=10.4103/1817-1737.134059 |url=}}</ref><ref name="ButrousGhofrani2008">{{cite journal|last1=Butrous|first1=Ghazwan|last2=Ghofrani|first2=Hossein Ardeschir|last3=Grimminger|first3=Friedrich|title=Pulmonary Vascular Disease in the Developing World|journal=Circulation|volume=118|issue=17|year=2008|pages=1758–1766|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.727289}}</ref> | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|2}} | {{Reflist|2}} | ||
Revision as of 07:30, 2 August 2020
|
Pulmonic regurgitation Microchapters |
|
Diagnosis |
|---|
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Aravind Kuchkuntla, M.B.B.S[2], Aysha Anwar, M.B.B.S[3]
Overview
The prevalence of mild pulmonary regurgitation (PR) is present in 40% to 78% of patients with normal anatomy of the pulmonary valve. In patients born with congenital heart disease, 20% of patients have associated abnormalities of the pulmonary valve or the right ventricular outlet obstruction. The incidence and prevalence of PR increase with age. 24% of deaths due to valvular heart disease are attributed to tricuspid valve and pulmonic valve abnormalities combined. There is one study supporting the increased prevalence of PR among women. In developing countries Pulmonary hypertension (PAH) is primarily due to rheumatic heart disease (RHD) which is rare in developed countries. PAH is a major cause of secondary PR.
Epidemiology and Demographics
Prevalence
- The prevalence of valvular heart disease in U.S. population is estimated to be 2.5%. About 13% of U.S population born before 1943 have valvular heart disease.[1]
- The prevalence of mild PR is present in 40% to 78% of patients with normal anatomy of the pulmonary valve.[2][3][4][5]
- In 1987, the prevalence of PR in patients with structurally normal hearts was estimated to be 5% in Boston area population, USA.[2]
- In 1990, the prevalence of PR in normal patients (21 - 82 years) was estimated to be 31%.[5]
- In 1992, the prevalence of PR in children (birth- 14 years) with structurally normal hearts was estimated to be 21.9% in Jerusalem, Israel population. Pulmonic regurgitation was the most common of all valvular regurgitations detected among children.[6]
Incidence
- In patients born with congenital heart disease, 20% of patients have associated abnormalities of the pulmonary valve or the right ventricular outlet obstruction.[2]
Case-fatality rate/Mortality rate
- In 2017, CDC reported that 24% of deaths due to valvular heart disease were attributed to tricuspid valve and pulmonic valve abnormalities combined.[1]
Age
- Patients of all age groups may develop pulmonic regurgitation (PR) depending on the etiology.
- In the U.S population, the prevalence of valvular heart disease is higher in older adults.[1]
- In 1989, a meta‐analysis reported that 29% of the patients with isolated congenital PR develop symptoms within 40 years. The risk of development of symptoms demonstrated an increase with age, particularly after 40 years.[7]
- In 1990, the incidence of mild degree valvular regurgitation in normal subjects was estimated to increase with age.[5]
- In 2017, the incidence of PR in Tibetans (one of the highest cities in the world) was found to increase with age.[8]
Race
- There is no racial or ethnic predilection for pulmonary regurgitation.
Gender
- In 2017, Pulmonic regurgitation (PR) was found to be more prevalent in Tibetan women.[8]
Developed Countries
- In developed countries such as the United States, Pulmonary hypertension (PAH) is primarily due to left heart disease. Other conditions that cause PAH include sickle cell disease; pulmonary embolus, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).[9] PAH is a major cause of secondary PR.
- Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is not a common cause of PAH or PR in developed countries. Due to the early detection and development of treatment strategies RHD is rare in developed countries.[10][11]
Developing Countries
- In developing countries Pulmonary hypertension (PAH) is primarily due to rheumatic heart disease (RHD), schistosomiasis, congenital heart disease, hemolytic diseases. PAH is a major cause of secondary PR. The burden of PAH is greater in developing than developed countries.[10][12]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Valvular Heart Disease | cdc.gov".
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Choong CY, Abascal VM, Weyman J, Levine RA, Gentile F, Thomas JD; et al. (1989). "Prevalence of valvular regurgitation by Doppler echocardiography in patients with structurally normal hearts by two-dimensional echocardiography". Am Heart J. 117 (3): 636–42. PMID 2784023.
- ↑ Zoghbi, William A.; Adams, David; Bonow, Robert O.; Enriquez-Sarano, Maurice; Foster, Elyse; Grayburn, Paul A.; Hahn, Rebecca T.; Han, Yuchi; Hung, Judy; Lang, Roberto M.; Little, Stephen H.; Shah, Dipan J.; Shernan, Stanton; Thavendiranathan, Paaladinesh; Thomas, James D.; Weissman, Neil J. (2017). "Recommendations for Noninvasive Evaluation of Native Valvular Regurgitation". Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography. 30 (4): 303–371. doi:10.1016/j.echo.2017.01.007. ISSN 0894-7317.
- ↑ Takao S, Miyatake K, Izumi S, Okamoto M, Kinoshita N, Nakagawa H; et al. (1988). "Clinical implications of pulmonary regurgitation in healthy individuals: detection by cross sectional pulsed Doppler echocardiography". Br Heart J. 59 (5): 542–50. PMC 1276894. PMID 3382565.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Klein AL, Burstow DJ, Tajik AJ, Zachariah PK, Taliercio CP, Taylor CL; et al. (1990). "Age-related prevalence of valvular regurgitation in normal subjects: a comprehensive color flow examination of 118 volunteers". J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 3 (1): 54–63. PMID 2310593.
- ↑ Brand, Abraham; Dollberg, Shaul; Keren, Andre (1992). "The prevalence of valvular regurgitation in children with structurally normal hearts: A color Doppler echocardiographic study". American Heart Journal. 123 (1): 177–180. doi:10.1016/0002-8703(92)90763-L. ISSN 0002-8703.
- ↑ Shimazaki, Y.; Blackstone, E.; Kirklin, J. (2008). "The Natural History of Isolated Congenital Pulmonary Valve Incompetence: Surgical Implications". The Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeon. 32 (04): 257–259. doi:10.1055/s-2007-1023399. ISSN 0171-6425.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Yang Y, Chen YD, Feng B, Ji ZX, Mao W, Zhi G (October 2017). "Factors Related to Ventricular Size and Valvular Regurgitation in Healthy Tibetans in Lhasa". Chin. Med. J. 130 (19): 2316–2320. doi:10.4103/0366-6999.215327. PMC 5634082. PMID 28937038.
- ↑ "Pulmonary Hypertension | NHLBI, NIH".
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Bhagavatula SK, Idrees MM (July 2014). "Saudi Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension: Challenges in managing pulmonary hypertension in the developing countries". Ann Thorac Med. 9 (Suppl 1): S127–30. doi:10.4103/1817-1737.134059. PMC 4114281. PMID 25076991.
- ↑ Vaideeswar, P.; Butany, J. (2016). "Valvular Heart Disease": 485–528. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-420219-1.00012-4.
- ↑ Butrous, Ghazwan; Ghofrani, Hossein Ardeschir; Grimminger, Friedrich (2008). "Pulmonary Vascular Disease in the Developing World". Circulation. 118 (17): 1758–1766. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.727289. ISSN 0009-7322.