Pulmonic regurgitation pathophysiology: Difference between revisions
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==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
===Anatomy of and physiology of [[pulmonic valve]]=== | ===Anatomy of and physiology of [[pulmonic valve]]=== | ||
*'''Location''': [[Pulmonary valve]] is located at the junction of the [[Ventricular outflow tract|right ventricular outflow tract]] and [[pulmonary artery]]. [[Pulmonic valve]] lies anterior and superior to the [[aortic valve]] at third intercostal space level. Infundibulum of the [[right ventricle]] separates it from [[tricuspid valve]].<ref name="pmid20435842">{{cite journal| author=Maganti K, Rigolin VH, Sarano ME, Bonow RO| title=Valvular heart disease: diagnosis and management. | journal=Mayo Clin Proc | year= 2010 | volume= 85 | issue= 5 | pages= 483-500 | pmid=20435842 | doi=10.4065/mcp.2009.0706 | pmc=2861980 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20435842 }} </ref> | |||
[[File:Pulmonic valve anatomy.jpeg||thumb|400px|center| Cadaveric specimen of [[heart]] demonstrating [[pulmonary valve]] location between [[Ventricular outflow tract|right ventricular outflow tract]] and [[pulmonary artery]] - By Anatomist90 - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20481209]] | |||
*'''Structure''': Three equal sized, semilunar cusps or leaflets make up the [[pulmonary valve]]. Based on the corresponding [[aortic valve]], the cusps are named right, left and anterior.<ref name="pmid10">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G, Felt V, Nedvídková J, Hynie S, Mosinger B, Vavrinková M, Järvisalo J, Saris NE |title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes |journal=Biochem. Pharmacol. |volume=24 |issue=17 |pages=1639–41 |date=September 1975 |pmid=10 |pmc=5922622 |doi=10.1016/0006-2952(75)90009-x |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid10">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G, Robinson JV, James AL, Sondén A, Rocksén D, Riddez L, Davidsson J, Persson JK, Gryth D, Bursell J, Arborelius UP, Ehrhart IC, Parker PE, Weidner WJ, Dabney JM, Scott JB, Haddy FJ, Meyer WJ, Gidwitz S, Ayers VK, Schoepp RJ, Johnston RE |title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes |journal=Biochem. Pharmacol. |volume=24 |issue=17 |pages=1639–41 |date=September 1975 |pmid=10 |pmc=5922622 |doi=10.1097/TA.0b013e3181a5b0e1 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*The three cusps are joined by [[commissures]] and the [[Cusps of heart valves|cusps]] are thinner when compared to the aortic valve, due to a low pressure in the right ventricle.<ref name="pmid10">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G, Raffle A, Gray J, MacDonald HR, Flohr H, Breull W, Wiesmann UN, DiDonato S, Herschkowitz NN, Horváth I, Arányi P, Náray A, Földes I, Gyuris A |title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes |journal=Biochem. Pharmacol. |volume=24 |issue=17 |pages=1639–41 |date=September 1975 |pmid=10 |pmc=5922622 |doi=10.1136/bmj.1.6001.93-a |url=}}</ref> | |||
*Histologically, the [[pulmonary valve]] consists of stratified extracellular matrix compartments. The layers constitute fibrosa, spongiosa and ventricularis.<ref name="pmid19713546">{{cite journal |vauthors=Combs MD, Yutzey KE |title=Heart valve development: regulatory networks in development and disease |journal=Circ. Res. |volume=105 |issue=5 |pages=408–21 |date=August 2009 |pmid=19713546 |pmc=2777683 |doi=10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*The diameter of [[pulmonic valve]] is demonstrated to be closely related to the body size. For adult men (>17 yeras age) mean [[pulmonary valve]] diameter is 26.2 +/- 2.3 mm and 23.9 +/- 2.2 mm for adult women.<ref name="pmid10788818">{{cite journal |vauthors=Capps SB, Elkins RC, Fronk DM |title=Body surface area as a predictor of aortic and pulmonary valve diameter |journal=J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=975–82 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10788818 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5223(00)70092-4 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*'''Physiology''': The [[right ventricle]] delivers the received blood entirely to the pulmonary circulation every beat, maintaining optimum pressure.<ref name="pmid27613549">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pinsky MR |title=The right ventricle: interaction with the pulmonary circulation |journal=Crit Care |volume=20 |issue= |pages=266 |date=September 2016 |pmid=27613549 |pmc=5018168 |doi=10.1186/s13054-016-1440-0 |url=}}</ref> [[Pulmonary valve]] opens during right ventricular [[systole]] allowing the [[deoxygenated]] blood to be delivered to the [[lungs]]. <ref name="pmid10">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G, Fleet GH, Phaff HJ, van Dam-Mieras MC, Slotboom AJ, Pieterson WA, de Haas GH |title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes |journal=Biochem. Pharmacol. |volume=24 |issue=17 |pages=1639–41 |date=September 1975 |pmid=10 |pmc=5922622 |doi=10.1016/0005-2744(75)90234-x |url=}}</ref> During the right ventricular [[diastole]] the [[pulmonary valve]]s close completely to prevent [[regurgitation]] (back flow) of the [[blood]] into the [[right ventricle]].<ref name="pmid10">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G, Tarentino AL, Maley F, Korelitz BI, Sommers SC, Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G, Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G |title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes |journal=Biochem. Pharmacol. |volume=24 |issue=17 |pages=1639–41 |date=September 1975 |pmid=10 |pmc=5922622 |doi=10.1016/0006-291x(75)90337-x |url=}}</ref> | |||
*The closure of the pulmonic valve contributes to the P2 component of the [[second heart sound]] ([[S2]]). | |||
===Pathogenesis=== | ===Pathogenesis=== | ||
The pulmonic regurgitation usually occurs by one of the following mechanisms:<ref>{{cite book | last = Khavandi | first = Ali | title = Essential revision notes for the cardiology KBA | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-0199654901 }} </ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Khavandi | first = Ali | title = Essential revision notes for the cardiology KBA | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-0199654901 }}</ref> | The pulmonic regurgitation usually occurs by one of the following mechanisms:<ref>{{cite book | last = Khavandi | first = Ali | title = Essential revision notes for the cardiology KBA | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-0199654901 }} </ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Khavandi | first = Ali | title = Essential revision notes for the cardiology KBA | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-0199654901 }}</ref> | ||
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====Increasing regurgitation causing [[right ventricle|right ventricular]] volume overload<ref name="pmid26430501">{{cite journal| author=Bigdelian H, Mardani D, Sedighi M| title=The Effect of Pulmonary Valve Replacement (PVR) Surgery on Hemodynamics of Patients Who Underwent Repair of Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF). | journal=J Cardiovasc Thorac Res | year= 2015 | volume= 7 | issue= 3 | pages= 122-5 | pmid=26430501 | doi=10.15171/jcvtr.2015.26 | pmc=4586599 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26430501 }} </ref>==== | ====Increasing regurgitation causing [[right ventricle|right ventricular]] volume overload<ref name="pmid26430501">{{cite journal| author=Bigdelian H, Mardani D, Sedighi M| title=The Effect of Pulmonary Valve Replacement (PVR) Surgery on Hemodynamics of Patients Who Underwent Repair of Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF). | journal=J Cardiovasc Thorac Res | year= 2015 | volume= 7 | issue= 3 | pages= 122-5 | pmid=26430501 | doi=10.15171/jcvtr.2015.26 | pmc=4586599 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26430501 }} </ref>==== | ||
* Patients with [[pulmonic regurgitation]] develop chronic [[right ventricle|right ventricular]] overload resulting in right [[Ventricular remodeling|ventricular remodeling]] and progressive decline in function. The rate of decline in right ventricular [[systole|systolic function]] is affected by associated conditions such as peripheral [[pulmonary artery stenosis]] and [[pulmonary hypertension]] which | * Patients with [[pulmonic regurgitation]] (PR) develop chronic [[right ventricle|right ventricular]] overload resulting in right [[Ventricular remodeling|ventricular remodeling]] and progressive decline in function. The rate of decline in right ventricular [[systole|systolic function]] is also affected by associated conditions such as peripheral [[pulmonary artery stenosis]] and [[pulmonary hypertension]] which accentuates [[PR]]. Among [[patients]] with increased [[pulmonary artery]] pressure from dysfunction of [[left ventricle]] or residual [[pulmonary artery stenosis]] the severity of [[PR]] is increased. Progressive dilation of the [[right ventricle]] results in functional [[tricuspid regurgitation]] and increases the risk of developing [[arrhythmias]]. | ||
*The [[Diastolic blood pressure|diastolic pressure]] difference between [[right ventricle]] and [[pulmonary artery]] is usually very small and steers the pulmonic | |||
====Dynamics and progression of regurgitation==== | |||
*The [[Diastolic blood pressure|diastolic pressure]] difference between [[right ventricle]] and [[pulmonary artery]] is usually very small and steers the [[pulmonic regurgitation]]. The [[right ventricle|right ventricular]] stiffness due to [[right ventricular hypertrophy]] (such as in [[Tetralogy of Fallot]] and [[fibrosis]]) increases the ventricular [[diastolic pressure]]. Increased ventricular [[diastolic pressure]] decreases the gradient causing [[regurgitation]]. A slight increase in the intrathoracic pressure (such as among [[ventilation|ventilated]] patients) can accentuate [[PR]] considerably.<ref name="pmid17569817">{{cite journal| author=Chaturvedi RR, Redington AN| title=Pulmonary regurgitation in congenital heart disease. | journal=Heart | year= 2007 | volume= 93 | issue= 7 | pages= 880-9 | pmid=17569817 | doi=10.1136/hrt.2005.075234 | pmc=1994453 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17569817 }} </ref> | |||
*The severity of [[regurgitant jet]] is dependent on:<ref name="pmid26430501">{{cite journal| author=Bigdelian H, Mardani D, Sedighi M| title=The Effect of Pulmonary Valve Replacement (PVR) Surgery on Hemodynamics of Patients Who Underwent Repair of Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF). | journal=J Cardiovasc Thorac Res | year= 2015 | volume= 7 | issue= 3 | pages= 122-5 | pmid=26430501 | doi=10.15171/jcvtr.2015.26 | pmc=4586599 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26430501 }} </ref> | *The severity of [[regurgitant jet]] is dependent on:<ref name="pmid26430501">{{cite journal| author=Bigdelian H, Mardani D, Sedighi M| title=The Effect of Pulmonary Valve Replacement (PVR) Surgery on Hemodynamics of Patients Who Underwent Repair of Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF). | journal=J Cardiovasc Thorac Res | year= 2015 | volume= 7 | issue= 3 | pages= 122-5 | pmid=26430501 | doi=10.15171/jcvtr.2015.26 | pmc=4586599 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26430501 }} </ref> | ||
**Size of the [[regurgitant orifice]] | **Size of the [[regurgitant orifice]] | ||
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===Associated conditions=== | ===Associated conditions=== | ||
Isolated [[PR]] is uncommon and is usually demonstrated with other [[valve|valvular]] abnormalities or in certain conditions. The most important conditions/[[diseases]] associated with [[PR]] include: | Isolated [[PR]] is uncommon and is usually demonstrated with other [[valve|valvular]] abnormalities or in certain conditions. The most important conditions/[[diseases]] associated with [[PR]] include: | ||
*[[TOF]]: Surgical repair of [[pulmonic stenosis]] associated with [[TOF]] may lead to [[PR]]. Post [[TOF]] repair, [[PR]] is a common complication. | *'''[[TOF]]''': Surgical repair of [[pulmonic stenosis]] associated with [[TOF]] may lead to [[PR]]. Post [[TOF]] repair, [[PR]] is a common complication. | ||
*[[Marfan syndrome]]: Dilatation of [[pulmonary artery]] root is one of the established diagnostic criteria of [[Marfan syndrome]].<ref name="pmid11997425">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nollen GJ, van Schijndel KE, Timmermans J, Groenink M, Barentsz JO, van der Wall EE, Stoker J, Mulder BJ |title=Pulmonary artery root dilatation in Marfan syndrome: quantitative assessment of an unknown criterion |journal=Heart |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=470–1 |date=May 2002 |pmid=11997425 |pmc=1767105 |doi=10.1136/heart.87.5.470 |url=}}</ref> ALthough other valvular [[regurgitations]] are common in [[Marfan syndrome]], pulmonic [[regurgitation]] is also a possibiity. | *[[Marfan syndrome]]: Dilatation of [[pulmonary artery]] root is one of the established diagnostic criteria of [[Marfan syndrome]].<ref name="pmid11997425">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nollen GJ, van Schijndel KE, Timmermans J, Groenink M, Barentsz JO, van der Wall EE, Stoker J, Mulder BJ |title=Pulmonary artery root dilatation in Marfan syndrome: quantitative assessment of an unknown criterion |journal=Heart |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=470–1 |date=May 2002 |pmid=11997425 |pmc=1767105 |doi=10.1136/heart.87.5.470 |url=}}</ref> ALthough other valvular [[regurgitations]] are common in [[Marfan syndrome]], pulmonic [[regurgitation]] is also a possibiity. | ||
*[[Rheumatic heart disease]] | *'''[[Rheumatic heart disease]]''': The [[disease]] is uncommon in developed countries but developing countries still share the burden of the [[disease]].<ref name="pmid8432279">{{cite journal |vauthors=Eisenberg MJ |title=Rheumatic heart disease in the developing world: prevalence, prevention, and control |journal=Eur. Heart J. |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=122–8 |date=January 1993 |pmid=8432279 |doi=10.1093/eurheartj/14.1.122 |url=}}</ref><ref name="prasadKumar2017">{{cite journal|last1=prasad|first1=Arun|last2=Kumar|first2=Sanjeev |last3=Kr Singh|first3= Birendra |last4=Kumari|first4=Neelam |title=Mortality Due to Rheumatic Heart Disease in Developing World: A Preventable Problem|journal=Journal of Clinical & Experimental Cardiology|volume=08|issue=03|year=2017|issn=21559880|doi=10.4172/2155-9880.1000503}}</ref> | ||
*[[Syphilis]] | *'''[[Syphilis]]''': Although a rare cause, [[pulmonary artery]] dilatation and [[PAH]] may be caused by [[tertiary syphilis]]. Given the prognostic implications and available [[treatments]], early detection of [[PAH]].<ref name="pmid25406836">{{cite journal |vauthors=Raymond TE, Khabbaza JE, Yadav R, Tonelli AR |title=Significance of main pulmonary artery dilation on imaging studies |journal=Ann Am Thorac Soc |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=1623–32 |date=December 2014 |pmid=25406836 |pmc=4298979 |doi=10.1513/AnnalsATS.201406-253PP |url=}}</ref> Being a [[sexually transmitted disease]] (STD), it is important to screen the [[patient]] for other [[sexually transmitted disease|STDs]]. | ||
===Gross pathology=== | ===Gross pathology=== | ||
*On gross pathology vegetative lesions on the [[pulmonic valve]] leaflets may be observed in a [[patient]] with [[acquired]] alteration in the [[valve|valvular]] leaflet [[morphology]].<ref name="CurtissMiller1983">{{cite journal|last1=Curtiss|first1=E I|last2=Miller|first2=T R|last3=Shapiro|first3=L S|title=Pulmonic regurgitation due to valvular tophi.|journal=Circulation|volume=67|issue=3|year=1983|pages=699–701|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/01.CIR.67.3.699}}</ref> | *On gross pathology vegetative lesions on the [[pulmonic valve]] leaflets may be observed in a [[patient]] with [[acquired]] alteration in the [[valve|valvular]] leaflet [[morphology]].<ref name="CurtissMiller1983">{{cite journal|last1=Curtiss|first1=E I|last2=Miller|first2=T R|last3=Shapiro|first3=L S|title=Pulmonic regurgitation due to valvular tophi.|journal=Circulation|volume=67|issue=3|year=1983|pages=699–701|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/01.CIR.67.3.699}}</ref> | ||
===Microscopic pathology=== | ===Microscopic pathology=== | ||
*In polarized light microscopy of the material taken from the [[pulmonic valve]], [[Gout diagnostic study of choice|negatively birefringent crystals]] may be observed in [[acquired]] alteration in the [[valve|valvular]] leaflet [[morphology]].<ref name="CurtissMiller1983">{{cite journal|last1=Curtiss|first1=E I|last2=Miller|first2=T R|last3=Shapiro|first3=L S|title=Pulmonic regurgitation due to valvular tophi.|journal=Circulation|volume=67|issue=3|year=1983|pages=699–701|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/01.CIR.67.3.699}}</ref> | *In polarized light microscopy of the material taken from the [[pulmonic valve]], [[Gout diagnostic study of choice|negatively birefringent crystals]] may be observed in [[acquired]] alteration in the [[valve|valvular]] leaflet [[morphology]].<ref name="CurtissMiller1983">{{cite journal|last1=Curtiss|first1=E I|last2=Miller|first2=T R|last3=Shapiro|first3=L S|title=Pulmonic regurgitation due to valvular tophi.|journal=Circulation|volume=67|issue=3|year=1983|pages=699–701|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/01.CIR.67.3.699}}</ref> | ||
Revision as of 20:46, 4 August 2020
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Pulmonic regurgitation Microchapters |
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Diagnosis |
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Aravind Kuchkuntla, M.B.B.S[2], Aysha Anwar, M.B.B.S[3]
Overview
The pathophysiologic mechanism of pulmonic regurgitation includes right ventricular overload resulting in the right ventricular remodeling and progressive decline in function. The rate of decline in right ventricular systolic function is affected by associated conditions such as peripheral pulmonary artery stenosis and pulmonary hypertension which further increase the severity of pulmonary regurgitation.
Pathophysiology
Anatomy of and physiology of pulmonic valve
- Location: Pulmonary valve is located at the junction of the right ventricular outflow tract and pulmonary artery. Pulmonic valve lies anterior and superior to the aortic valve at third intercostal space level. Infundibulum of the right ventricle separates it from tricuspid valve.[1]
- Structure: Three equal sized, semilunar cusps or leaflets make up the pulmonary valve. Based on the corresponding aortic valve, the cusps are named right, left and anterior.[2] [2]
- The three cusps are joined by commissures and the cusps are thinner when compared to the aortic valve, due to a low pressure in the right ventricle.[2]
- Histologically, the pulmonary valve consists of stratified extracellular matrix compartments. The layers constitute fibrosa, spongiosa and ventricularis.[3]
- The diameter of pulmonic valve is demonstrated to be closely related to the body size. For adult men (>17 yeras age) mean pulmonary valve diameter is 26.2 +/- 2.3 mm and 23.9 +/- 2.2 mm for adult women.[4]
- Physiology: The right ventricle delivers the received blood entirely to the pulmonary circulation every beat, maintaining optimum pressure.[5] Pulmonary valve opens during right ventricular systole allowing the deoxygenated blood to be delivered to the lungs. [2] During the right ventricular diastole the pulmonary valves close completely to prevent regurgitation (back flow) of the blood into the right ventricle.[2]
- The closure of the pulmonic valve contributes to the P2 component of the second heart sound (S2).
Pathogenesis
The pulmonic regurgitation usually occurs by one of the following mechanisms:[6][7]
Acquired alteration in the valvular leaflet morphology[8]
- The development of pulmonic regurgitation due to tophus valvular vegetations has been reported in a case. The patient reported had long-standing cyanotic congenital heart disease and developed hyperuricemia secondary to polycythemia. The possible mechanism of development of the vegetations involved hemodynamic valvular trauma in the setting of sustained hyperuricemia and subsequent dystrophic calcification at primary tophus lesion.
Idiopathic dilatation of the pulmonary artery (IDPA)[9][10][11]
- The exact pathogenesis of dilatation of the pulmonary artery is not fully understood. The demonstration of the disease among pediatric population signals the congenital nature of the etiology. Main pulmonary artery and the origin of its right and left main pulmonary arteries are majorly affected. It is thought that pulmonary artery dilatation is mediated by the unequal division of truncus arteriosus communis. Other proposed mechanisms include maldevelopment of the whole pulmonary tree and the association of hypoplastic aorta with dilated.
Congenital absence or malformation of the valve[13][9][10][14]
- Absent pulmonary valve syndrome (APVS) is rare and involves developmental abnormality and dysplasia or absolute absence of pulmonary valve cusps. A variable degree of dilatation/aneurysm of the main pulmonary artery always accompanies the disorder.
- It is thought that the development of pulmonary artery aneurysm is mediated by either the congenital weakness or cystic medial degeneration of the pulmonary artery walls. An association between cystic medial degeneration and increased hemodynamic forces then leads to aneurysm formation. Pulmonary artery aneurysms have been associated with structural cardiac and vascular abnormalities, vasculitis, and infection (such as syphilis).
- The pathogenesis of Fallot type (APVS) involves either agenesis of ductus arteriosus or post pulmonary stenotic dilatation due to increased stroke volume.
- Quuadricuspid pulmonary valve is rare but may cause PR. Thick valvular leaflets with decreased mobility without complete closure during diastole may lead to the development of PR.[15]
Increasing regurgitation causing right ventricular volume overload[16]
- Patients with pulmonic regurgitation (PR) develop chronic right ventricular overload resulting in right ventricular remodeling and progressive decline in function. The rate of decline in right ventricular systolic function is also affected by associated conditions such as peripheral pulmonary artery stenosis and pulmonary hypertension which accentuates PR. Among patients with increased pulmonary artery pressure from dysfunction of left ventricle or residual pulmonary artery stenosis the severity of PR is increased. Progressive dilation of the right ventricle results in functional tricuspid regurgitation and increases the risk of developing arrhythmias.
Dynamics and progression of regurgitation
- The diastolic pressure difference between right ventricle and pulmonary artery is usually very small and steers the pulmonic regurgitation. The right ventricular stiffness due to right ventricular hypertrophy (such as in Tetralogy of Fallot and fibrosis) increases the ventricular diastolic pressure. Increased ventricular diastolic pressure decreases the gradient causing regurgitation. A slight increase in the intrathoracic pressure (such as among ventilated patients) can accentuate PR considerably.[17]
- The severity of regurgitant jet is dependent on:[16]
- Size of the regurgitant orifice
- Afterload of the right ventricle
- Right ventricle diastolic compliance
- Duration of right ventricular diastole
Genetics
- 25% cases of absent pulmonary valve syndrome (APVS) are associated with chromosomal anomalies such as Trisomy 21, Trisomy 13, chromosome 6 and 7 deletions.[18]
- 22q11 microdeletion has been shown to be associated with 25% cases of APVS.[19]
Associated conditions
Isolated PR is uncommon and is usually demonstrated with other valvular abnormalities or in certain conditions. The most important conditions/diseases associated with PR include:
- TOF: Surgical repair of pulmonic stenosis associated with TOF may lead to PR. Post TOF repair, PR is a common complication.
- Marfan syndrome: Dilatation of pulmonary artery root is one of the established diagnostic criteria of Marfan syndrome.[20] ALthough other valvular regurgitations are common in Marfan syndrome, pulmonic regurgitation is also a possibiity.
- Rheumatic heart disease: The disease is uncommon in developed countries but developing countries still share the burden of the disease.[21][22]
- Syphilis: Although a rare cause, pulmonary artery dilatation and PAH may be caused by tertiary syphilis. Given the prognostic implications and available treatments, early detection of PAH.[23] Being a sexually transmitted disease (STD), it is important to screen the patient for other STDs.
Gross pathology
- On gross pathology vegetative lesions on the pulmonic valve leaflets may be observed in a patient with acquired alteration in the valvular leaflet morphology.[8]
Microscopic pathology
- In polarized light microscopy of the material taken from the pulmonic valve, negatively birefringent crystals may be observed in acquired alteration in the valvular leaflet morphology.[8]
References
- ↑ Maganti K, Rigolin VH, Sarano ME, Bonow RO (2010). "Valvular heart disease: diagnosis and management". Mayo Clin Proc. 85 (5): 483–500. doi:10.4065/mcp.2009.0706. PMC 2861980. PMID 20435842.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G, Felt V, Nedvídková J, Hynie S, Mosinger B, Vavrinková M, Järvisalo J, Saris NE (September 1975). "Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes". Biochem. Pharmacol. 24 (17): 1639–41. doi:10.1016/0006-2952(75)90009-x. PMC 5922622. PMID 10.
- ↑ Combs MD, Yutzey KE (August 2009). "Heart valve development: regulatory networks in development and disease". Circ. Res. 105 (5): 408–21. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566. PMC 2777683. PMID 19713546.
- ↑ Capps SB, Elkins RC, Fronk DM (May 2000). "Body surface area as a predictor of aortic and pulmonary valve diameter". J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 119 (5): 975–82. doi:10.1016/S0022-5223(00)70092-4. PMID 10788818.
- ↑ Pinsky MR (September 2016). "The right ventricle: interaction with the pulmonary circulation". Crit Care. 20: 266. doi:10.1186/s13054-016-1440-0. PMC 5018168. PMID 27613549.
- ↑ Khavandi, Ali (2014). Essential revision notes for the cardiology KBA. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199654901.
- ↑ Khavandi, Ali (2014). Essential revision notes for the cardiology KBA. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199654901.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Curtiss, E I; Miller, T R; Shapiro, L S (1983). "Pulmonic regurgitation due to valvular tophi". Circulation. 67 (3): 699–701. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.67.3.699. ISSN 0009-7322.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Malviya A, Jha PK, Kalita JP, Saikia MK, Mishra A (2017). "Idiopathic dilatation of pulmonary artery: A review". Indian Heart J. 69 (1): 119–124. doi:10.1016/j.ihj.2016.07.009. PMC 5319124. PMID 28228295.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Sharma RK, Talwar D, Gupta SK, Bansal S (2016). "Idiopathic dilatation of pulmonary artery". Lung India. 33 (6): 675–677. doi:10.4103/0970-2113.192869. PMC 5112830. PMID 27891002.
- ↑ Segall, S.; Ritter, I. I.; Hwang, W. (1950). "A Case of Marked Dilatation of the Pulmonary Arterial Tree Associated with Mitral Stenosis". Circulation. 1 (4): 777–781. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.1.4.777. ISSN 0009-7322.
- ↑ Deb, Subrato J.; Zehr, Kenton J.; Shields, Raymond C. (2005). "Idiopathic Pulmonary Artery Aneurysm". The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 80 (4): 1500–1502. doi:10.1016/j.athoracsur.2004.04.011. ISSN 0003-4975.
- ↑ Bouzas, Beatriz; Kilner, Philip J.; Gatzoulis, Michael A. (2005). "Pulmonary regurgitation: not a benign lesion". European Heart Journal. 26 (5): 433–439. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehi091. ISSN 0195-668X.
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- ↑ Eisenberg MJ (January 1993). "Rheumatic heart disease in the developing world: prevalence, prevention, and control". Eur. Heart J. 14 (1): 122–8. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/14.1.122. PMID 8432279.
- ↑ prasad, Arun; Kumar, Sanjeev; Kr Singh, Birendra; Kumari, Neelam (2017). "Mortality Due to Rheumatic Heart Disease in Developing World: A Preventable Problem". Journal of Clinical & Experimental Cardiology. 08 (03). doi:10.4172/2155-9880.1000503. ISSN 2155-9880.
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