Nausea and vomiting medical therapy: Difference between revisions

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* Mainstay of treatment of nausea and vomiting is correcting any electrolyte imbalance, dehydration, malnutrition, and suppression of symptoms while evaluating and treating the underlying cause.
* Mainstay of treatment of nausea and vomiting is correcting any electrolyte imbalance, dehydration, malnutrition, and suppression of symptoms while evaluating and treating the underlying cause.
* Dietary recommendations include a low-fat, low-fiber diet with frequent small meals if able to tolerate oral intake. Liquid diet is recommended in case solid diet is not well tolerated. <ref name="pmid26770271">{{cite journal |vauthors=Singh P, Yoon SS, Kuo B |title=Nausea: a review of pathophysiology and therapeutics |journal=Therap Adv Gastroenterol |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=98–112 |date=January 2016 |pmid=26770271 |pmc=4699282 |doi=10.1177/1756283X15618131 |url=}}</ref>
* Dietary recommendations include a low-fat, low-fiber diet with frequent small meals if able to tolerate oral intake. Liquid diet is recommended in case solid diet is not well tolerated. <ref name="pmid26770271">{{cite journal |vauthors=Singh P, Yoon SS, Kuo B |title=Nausea: a review of pathophysiology and therapeutics |journal=Therap Adv Gastroenterol |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=98–112 |date=January 2016 |pmid=26770271 |pmc=4699282 |doi=10.1177/1756283X15618131 |url=}}</ref>
* Various antiemetics are used with some more effective in specific etiologies.
* Medical therapy involves two kinds of drugs i.e., antiemetics and prokinetics. Antiemetics suppress nausea and vomiting and typically act centrally. Prokinetics modulate gastrointestinal motility.
===Antiemetics==
* Benzodiazepines are used for anticipatory nausea and postoperative nausea nd vomiting. Eg., Lorazepam 0.5-2mg oral, sublingual or intramuscular, Alprazolam 0.25-1mg oral or IV. <ref name="pmid8123420">{{cite journal |vauthors=Di Florio T, Goucke R |title=Reduction of dopamine release and postoperative emesis by benzodiazepines |journal=Br J Anaesth |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=325 |date=August 1993 |pmid=8123420 |doi=10.1093/bja/71.2.325 |url=}}</ref>
* Benzodiazepines are used for anticipatory nausea and postoperative nausea nd vomiting. Eg., Lorazepam 0.5-2mg oral, sublingual or intramuscular, Alprazolam 0.25-1mg oral or IV. <ref name="pmid8123420">{{cite journal |vauthors=Di Florio T, Goucke R |title=Reduction of dopamine release and postoperative emesis by benzodiazepines |journal=Br J Anaesth |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=325 |date=August 1993 |pmid=8123420 |doi=10.1093/bja/71.2.325 |url=}}</ref>
*Serotonin antagonists are used in post-operative, post-radiation and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting. Eg., Ondansetron 4-8mg oral or IV, Granisetron 1-2 mg every 4-8 hours or 0.075mg-0.25mg every 24 hours oral or IV.
*Serotonin antagonists are used in post-operative, post-radiation and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting. Eg., Ondansetron 4-8mg oral or IV, Granisetron 1-2 mg every 4-8 hours or 0.075mg-0.25mg every 24 hours oral or IV.
*Antihistamines are used in motion sickness and labrythitis. Eg., Meclizine 25-50mg every 24 hours oral, Diphenhydramine, Cyclizine, Hydroxazine 25-50mg every 6-8 hours, 25–75 mg every 8 hours, 25–50 mg every 4–6 hours, 25–100 mg every 6–8 hours oral, IM or IV. <ref name="pmid26770271">{{cite journal |vauthors=Singh P, Yoon SS, Kuo B |title=Nausea: a review of pathophysiology and therapeutics |journal=Therap Adv Gastroenterol |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=98–112 |date=January 2016 |pmid=26770271 |pmc=4699282 |doi=10.1177/1756283X15618131 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid15023018">{{cite journal |vauthors=Flake ZA, Scalley RD, Bailey AG |title=Practical selection of antiemetics |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=1169–74 |date=March 2004 |pmid=15023018 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Antihistamines are used in motion sickness and labrythitis. Eg., Meclizine 25-50mg every 24 hours oral, Diphenhydramine, Cyclizine, Hydroxazine 25-50mg every 6-8 hours, 25–75 mg every 8 hours, 25–50 mg every 4–6 hours, 25–100 mg every 6–8 hours oral, IM or IV. <ref name="pmid26770271">{{cite journal |vauthors=Singh P, Yoon SS, Kuo B |title=Nausea: a review of pathophysiology and therapeutics |journal=Therap Adv Gastroenterol |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=98–112 |date=January 2016 |pmid=26770271 |pmc=4699282 |doi=10.1177/1756283X15618131 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid15023018">{{cite journal |vauthors=Flake ZA, Scalley RD, Bailey AG |title=Practical selection of antiemetics |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=1169–74 |date=March 2004 |pmid=15023018 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Anticolenergic agents are used in motion sickness. Eg., Scopolamine 0.3–0.6 mg every 24 hours SL, IV, IM or transdermal.
*Anticholenergic agents are used in motion sickness. Eg., Scopolamine 0.3–0.6 mg every 24 hours SL, IV, IM or transdermal.
*Phenothiazines are Antidopaminergics which are effective for migraine, motion sickness, vertigo, postoperative and chemotherapy induced nausea nd vomiting. Eg., Prochlorperazine, Promethazine, Chlorpromazine, Perphenazine 5–10 mg every 6–8 hours, 12.5 –25 mg every 4–6 hours, 10–25 mg every 4–6 hours, 4–8 mg every 8–12 hours Oral, IV or IM.
*Phenothiazines are Antidopaminergics which are effective for migraine, motion sickness, vertigo, postoperative and chemotherapy induced nausea nd vomiting. Eg., Prochlorperazine, Promethazine, Chlorpromazine, Perphenazine 5–10 mg every 6–8 hours, 12.5 –25 mg every 4–6 hours, 10–25 mg every 4–6 hours, 4–8 mg every 8–12 hours Oral, IV or IM.
*Droperidol is a restricted drug used for postoperative and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting. Eg., 0.625–1.25 mg every 24hours IM or IV <ref name="pmid11208736">{{cite journal |vauthors=Quigley EM, Hasler WL, Parkman HP |title=AGA technical review on nausea and vomiting |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=263–86 |date=January 2001 |pmid=11208736 |doi=10.1053/gast.2001.20516 |url=}}</ref>
*Droperidol is a restricted drug used for postoperative and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting. Eg., 0.625–1.25 mg every 24hours IM or IV <ref name="pmid11208736">{{cite journal |vauthors=Quigley EM, Hasler WL, Parkman HP |title=AGA technical review on nausea and vomiting |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=263–86 |date=January 2001 |pmid=11208736 |doi=10.1053/gast.2001.20516 |url=}}</ref>
* Cannabinoids are used for chemotherapy induced nausea nd vomiting. Eg., Dronabinol, Nabilone 2.5–10 mg every 6–8 hours, 1–2 mg every 8–12 hours oral.
* Cannabinoids are used for chemotherapy induced nausea nd vomiting. Eg., Dronabinol, Nabilone 2.5–10 mg every 6–8 hours, 1–2 mg every 8–12 hours oral.
* Corticosteroids are used for acute or delayed chemotherapy induced or postoperative nausea and vomiting. Eg., Dexamethasone 4–8 mg every 4–6 hours Oral, IM or IV. <ref name="pmid18321441">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chepyala P, Olden KW |title=Nausea and vomiting |journal=Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=135–44 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18321441 |doi=10.1007/s11938-008-0026-6 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid15190136">{{cite journal |vauthors=Apfel CC, Korttila K, Abdalla M, Kerger H, Turan A, Vedder I, Zernak C, Danner K, Jokela R, Pocock SJ, Trenkler S, Kredel M, Biedler A, Sessler DI, Roewer N |title=A factorial trial of six interventions for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=350 |issue=24 |pages=2441–51 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15190136 |pmc=1307533 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa032196 |url=}}</ref>
* Corticosteroids are used for acute or delayed chemotherapy induced or postoperative nausea and vomiting. Eg., Dexamethasone 4–8 mg every 4–6 hours Oral, IM or IV. <ref name="pmid18321441">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chepyala P, Olden KW |title=Nausea and vomiting |journal=Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=135–44 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18321441 |doi=10.1007/s11938-008-0026-6 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid15190136">{{cite journal |vauthors=Apfel CC, Korttila K, Abdalla M, Kerger H, Turan A, Vedder I, Zernak C, Danner K, Jokela R, Pocock SJ, Trenkler S, Kredel M, Biedler A, Sessler DI, Roewer N |title=A factorial trial of six interventions for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=350 |issue=24 |pages=2441–51 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15190136 |pmc=1307533 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa032196 |url=}}</ref>
* NK-1 Receptor Antagonists is used in acute as well as delayed chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. It has also been used in gastroparesis-associated nausea and vomiting. Eg., Aprepitant 80–125 mg every 24 hours oral. <ref name="pmid18208572">{{cite journal |vauthors=Madsen JL, Fuglsang S |title=A randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover, double-blind trial of the NK1 receptor antagonist aprepitant on gastrointestinal motor function in healthy humans |journal=Aliment Pharmacol Ther |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=609–15 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18208572 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2036.2008.03618.x |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid19719336">{{cite journal |vauthors=Curran MP, Robinson DM |title=Aprepitant: a review of its use in the prevention of nausea and vomiting |journal=Drugs |volume=69 |issue=13 |pages=1853–78 |date=2009 |pmid=19719336 |doi=10.2165/11203680-000000000-00000 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid19444262">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chong K, Dhatariya K |title=A case of severe, refractory diabetic gastroparesis managed by prolonged use of aprepitant |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=285–8 |date=May 2009 |pmid=19444262 |doi=10.1038/nrendo.2009.50 |url=}}</ref>
===Prokinetics===
*Prokinetic agents are used for only prokinetic activity (such as Erythromycin) or both prokinetic and antiemetic activity (such as Metoclopramide and Domperidone which are Benzamides). Metoclopramide 10–20 mg every 6–8 hours Oral, IM or IV, Domperidone 10mg every 8–24 hours oral, Erythromycin 250–500mg every 8 hours oral or IV. <ref name="pmid23201066">{{cite journal |vauthors=Javid FA, Bulmer DC, Broad J, Aziz Q, Dukes GE, Sanger GJ |title=Anti-emetic and emetic effects of erythromycin in Suncus murinus: role of vagal nerve activation, gastric motility stimulation and motilin receptors |journal=Eur J Pharmacol |volume=699 |issue=1-3 |pages=48–54 |date=January 2013 |pmid=23201066 |doi=10.1016/j.ejphar.2012.11.035 |url=}}</ref>
===Miscellaneous therapy===
* Novel and non-traditional therapies for nausea and vomiting include Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), Gabapentin and Olanzapine. Tricyclic antidepressants (Amitriptyline, Nortriptyline, Doxepin, Desipramine, Imipramine) 10–100 mg/day oral, Gabapentin 300–900 mg three times daily oral, Olanzapine 5–10 mg/day oral. <ref name="pmid9753257">{{cite journal |vauthors=Prakash C, Lustman PJ, Freedland KE, Clouse RE |title=Tricyclic antidepressants for functional nausea and vomiting: clinical outcome in 37 patients |journal=Dig Dis Sci |volume=43 |issue=9 |pages=1951–6 |date=September 1998 |pmid=9753257 |doi=10.1023/a:1018878324327 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid15796394">{{cite journal |vauthors=Guttuso T, Vitticore P, Holloway RG |title=Responsiveness of life-threatening refractory emesis to gabapentin-scopolamine therapy following posterior fossa surgery. Case report |journal=J Neurosurg |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=547–9 |date=March 2005 |pmid=15796394 |doi=10.3171/jns.2005.102.3.0547 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid15700131">{{cite journal |vauthors=Navari RM, Einhorn LH, Passik SD, Loehrer PJ, Johnson C, Mayer ML, McClean J, Vinson J, Pletcher W |title=A phase II trial of olanzapine for the prevention of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a Hoosier Oncology Group study |journal=Support Care Cancer |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=529–34 |date=July 2005 |pmid=15700131 |doi=10.1007/s00520-004-0755-6 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid15493359">{{cite journal |vauthors=Passik SD, Navari RM, Jung SH, Nagy C, Vinson J, Kirsh KL, Loehrer P |title=A phase I trial of olanzapine (Zyprexa) for the prevention of delayed emesis in cancer patients: a Hoosier Oncology Group study |journal=Cancer Invest |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=383–8 |date=2004 |pmid=15493359 |doi=10.1081/cnv-200029066 |url=}}</ref>
* Ginger has some efficacy to reduce post-operative nausea and vomiting, morning sickness and motion sickness. <ref name="pmid10793599">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ernst E, Pittler MH |title=Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials |journal=Br J Anaesth |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=367–71 |date=March 2000 |pmid=10793599 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bja.a013442 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid12233808">{{cite journal |vauthors=Keating A, Chez RA |title=Ginger syrup as an antiemetic in early pregnancy |journal=Altern Ther Health Med |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=89–91 |date=2002 |pmid=12233808 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* Ginger has some efficacy to reduce post-operative nausea and vomiting, morning sickness and motion sickness. <ref name="pmid10793599">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ernst E, Pittler MH |title=Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials |journal=Br J Anaesth |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=367–71 |date=March 2000 |pmid=10793599 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bja.a013442 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid12233808">{{cite journal |vauthors=Keating A, Chez RA |title=Ginger syrup as an antiemetic in early pregnancy |journal=Altern Ther Health Med |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=89–91 |date=2002 |pmid=12233808 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* Gastric electric stimulation used in refractory gastroparesis. <ref name="pmid19719511">{{cite journal |vauthors=McCallum RW, Dusing RW, Sarosiek I, Cocjin J, Forster J, Lin Z |title=Mechanisms of symptomatic improvement after gastric electrical stimulation in gastroparetic patients |journal=Neurogastroenterol Motil |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=161–7, e50–1 |date=February 2010 |pmid=19719511 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2982.2009.01389.x |url=}}</ref>
* Alternative approaches include hypnosis, acupressure and acupuncture. <ref name="pmid10971166">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marchioro G, Azzarello G, Viviani F, Barbato F, Pavanetto M, Rosetti F, Pappagallo GL, Vinante O |title=Hypnosis in the treatment of anticipatory nausea and vomiting in patients receiving cancer chemotherapy |journal=Oncology |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=100–4 |date=August 2000 |pmid=10971166 |doi=10.1159/000012144 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid19370583">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee A, Fan LT |title=Stimulation of the wrist acupuncture point P6 for preventing postoperative nausea and vomiting |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=2 |pages=CD003281 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19370583 |pmc=3113464 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003281.pub3 |url=}}</ref>
* Alternative approaches include hypnosis, acupressure and acupuncture. <ref name="pmid10971166">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marchioro G, Azzarello G, Viviani F, Barbato F, Pavanetto M, Rosetti F, Pappagallo GL, Vinante O |title=Hypnosis in the treatment of anticipatory nausea and vomiting in patients receiving cancer chemotherapy |journal=Oncology |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=100–4 |date=August 2000 |pmid=10971166 |doi=10.1159/000012144 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid19370583">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee A, Fan LT |title=Stimulation of the wrist acupuncture point P6 for preventing postoperative nausea and vomiting |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=2 |pages=CD003281 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19370583 |pmc=3113464 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003281.pub3 |url=}}</ref>
===Treatment of Nausea===
While short-term nausea and vomiting are generally harmless, they may sometimes indicate a more serious condition, such as [[Coeliac disease]]. When associated with prolonged vomiting, it may lead to [[dehydration]] and/or dangerous electrolyte imbalances.
There are several types of [[antiemetic]]s, and  researchers continue to look for more effective treatments. The main types used post operatively for surgical patients are [[ondansetron]], [[dexamethasone]], [[promethazine]], [[diphenhydramine]], and in small doses [[droperidol]]. [[Doxylamine]] is the drug of choice in pregnancy-related nausea. Anecdotally, another remedy used by recovery room nurses is to place an [[isopropyl alcohol]] swab under the patient's nose while he or she breathes through the nose. This may abate the nausea until the antiemetic medication takes effect. When ingested or inhaled, the chemical compound [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] has been shown to reduce nausea in some users.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.drugpolicy.org/marijuana/medical/challenges/litigators/medical/conditions/nausea.cfm | title = Medicinal Uses of Marijuana: Nausea, Emesis and Appetite Stimulation | accessdate = 2007-08-02 | date = 2001 | author = Drug Policy Alliance}}</ref> Also available are a variety of non-invasive (often untested) mechanical devices used to suppress nausea due to motion sickness.
The spice [[ginger]] is also used for centuries as a folk remedy to treat nausea, and recent research has supported this use.<ref>{{cite web | title = Ginger | author = University of Maryland Medical Centre | url = http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsHerbs/Gingerch.html | accessdate = 2007-08-02 | date = 2006 }}</ref>
===Treatment of Vomiting===
=== Acute Pharmacotherapies ===
* Antiemetics: An [[antiemetic]] is a [[medication|drug]] that is effective against vomiting and [[nausea]]. Antiemetics are typically used to treat [[motion sickness]] and the [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side effects]] of some [[opioid]] [[analgesic]]s and [[chemotherapy]] directed against [[cancer]]. Antiemetics act by inhibiting the receptor sites associated with emesis. Hence, anticholinergics, antihistamines, dopamine antagonists, serotonin antagonists and cannabinoids are used as anti-emetics.
* Anticholinergics


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 05:25, 18 January 2021

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: {{VVS}

Overview

Medical Therapy

  • Mainstay of treatment of nausea and vomiting is correcting any electrolyte imbalance, dehydration, malnutrition, and suppression of symptoms while evaluating and treating the underlying cause.
  • Dietary recommendations include a low-fat, low-fiber diet with frequent small meals if able to tolerate oral intake. Liquid diet is recommended in case solid diet is not well tolerated. [1]
  • Medical therapy involves two kinds of drugs i.e., antiemetics and prokinetics. Antiemetics suppress nausea and vomiting and typically act centrally. Prokinetics modulate gastrointestinal motility.

=Antiemetics

  • Benzodiazepines are used for anticipatory nausea and postoperative nausea nd vomiting. Eg., Lorazepam 0.5-2mg oral, sublingual or intramuscular, Alprazolam 0.25-1mg oral or IV. [2]
  • Serotonin antagonists are used in post-operative, post-radiation and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting. Eg., Ondansetron 4-8mg oral or IV, Granisetron 1-2 mg every 4-8 hours or 0.075mg-0.25mg every 24 hours oral or IV.
  • Antihistamines are used in motion sickness and labrythitis. Eg., Meclizine 25-50mg every 24 hours oral, Diphenhydramine, Cyclizine, Hydroxazine 25-50mg every 6-8 hours, 25–75 mg every 8 hours, 25–50 mg every 4–6 hours, 25–100 mg every 6–8 hours oral, IM or IV. [1] [3]
  • Anticholenergic agents are used in motion sickness. Eg., Scopolamine 0.3–0.6 mg every 24 hours SL, IV, IM or transdermal.
  • Phenothiazines are Antidopaminergics which are effective for migraine, motion sickness, vertigo, postoperative and chemotherapy induced nausea nd vomiting. Eg., Prochlorperazine, Promethazine, Chlorpromazine, Perphenazine 5–10 mg every 6–8 hours, 12.5 –25 mg every 4–6 hours, 10–25 mg every 4–6 hours, 4–8 mg every 8–12 hours Oral, IV or IM.
  • Droperidol is a restricted drug used for postoperative and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting. Eg., 0.625–1.25 mg every 24hours IM or IV [4]
  • Cannabinoids are used for chemotherapy induced nausea nd vomiting. Eg., Dronabinol, Nabilone 2.5–10 mg every 6–8 hours, 1–2 mg every 8–12 hours oral.
  • Corticosteroids are used for acute or delayed chemotherapy induced or postoperative nausea and vomiting. Eg., Dexamethasone 4–8 mg every 4–6 hours Oral, IM or IV. [5] [6]
  • NK-1 Receptor Antagonists is used in acute as well as delayed chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. It has also been used in gastroparesis-associated nausea and vomiting. Eg., Aprepitant 80–125 mg every 24 hours oral. [7] [8] [9]

Prokinetics

  • Prokinetic agents are used for only prokinetic activity (such as Erythromycin) or both prokinetic and antiemetic activity (such as Metoclopramide and Domperidone which are Benzamides). Metoclopramide 10–20 mg every 6–8 hours Oral, IM or IV, Domperidone 10mg every 8–24 hours oral, Erythromycin 250–500mg every 8 hours oral or IV. [10]

Miscellaneous therapy

  • Novel and non-traditional therapies for nausea and vomiting include Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), Gabapentin and Olanzapine. Tricyclic antidepressants (Amitriptyline, Nortriptyline, Doxepin, Desipramine, Imipramine) 10–100 mg/day oral, Gabapentin 300–900 mg three times daily oral, Olanzapine 5–10 mg/day oral. [11] [12] [13] [14]
  • Ginger has some efficacy to reduce post-operative nausea and vomiting, morning sickness and motion sickness. [15] [16]
  • Gastric electric stimulation used in refractory gastroparesis. [17]
  • Alternative approaches include hypnosis, acupressure and acupuncture. [18] [19]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Singh P, Yoon SS, Kuo B (January 2016). "Nausea: a review of pathophysiology and therapeutics". Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 9 (1): 98–112. doi:10.1177/1756283X15618131. PMC 4699282. PMID 26770271.
  2. ↑ Di Florio T, Goucke R (August 1993). "Reduction of dopamine release and postoperative emesis by benzodiazepines". Br J Anaesth. 71 (2): 325. doi:10.1093/bja/71.2.325. PMID 8123420.
  3. ↑ Flake ZA, Scalley RD, Bailey AG (March 2004). "Practical selection of antiemetics". Am Fam Physician. 69 (5): 1169–74. PMID 15023018.
  4. ↑ Quigley EM, Hasler WL, Parkman HP (January 2001). "AGA technical review on nausea and vomiting". Gastroenterology. 120 (1): 263–86. doi:10.1053/gast.2001.20516. PMID 11208736.
  5. ↑ Chepyala P, Olden KW (April 2008). "Nausea and vomiting". Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol. 11 (2): 135–44. doi:10.1007/s11938-008-0026-6. PMID 18321441.
  6. ↑ Apfel CC, Korttila K, Abdalla M, Kerger H, Turan A, Vedder I, Zernak C, Danner K, Jokela R, Pocock SJ, Trenkler S, Kredel M, Biedler A, Sessler DI, Roewer N (June 2004). "A factorial trial of six interventions for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting". N Engl J Med. 350 (24): 2441–51. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa032196. PMC 1307533. PMID 15190136.
  7. ↑ Madsen JL, Fuglsang S (April 2008). "A randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover, double-blind trial of the NK1 receptor antagonist aprepitant on gastrointestinal motor function in healthy humans". Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 27 (7): 609–15. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2008.03618.x. PMID 18208572.
  8. ↑ Curran MP, Robinson DM (2009). "Aprepitant: a review of its use in the prevention of nausea and vomiting". Drugs. 69 (13): 1853–78. doi:10.2165/11203680-000000000-00000. PMID 19719336.
  9. ↑ Chong K, Dhatariya K (May 2009). "A case of severe, refractory diabetic gastroparesis managed by prolonged use of aprepitant". Nat Rev Endocrinol. 5 (5): 285–8. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2009.50. PMID 19444262.
  10. ↑ Javid FA, Bulmer DC, Broad J, Aziz Q, Dukes GE, Sanger GJ (January 2013). "Anti-emetic and emetic effects of erythromycin in Suncus murinus: role of vagal nerve activation, gastric motility stimulation and motilin receptors". Eur J Pharmacol. 699 (1–3): 48–54. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2012.11.035. PMID 23201066.
  11. ↑ Prakash C, Lustman PJ, Freedland KE, Clouse RE (September 1998). "Tricyclic antidepressants for functional nausea and vomiting: clinical outcome in 37 patients". Dig Dis Sci. 43 (9): 1951–6. doi:10.1023/a:1018878324327. PMID 9753257.
  12. ↑ Guttuso T, Vitticore P, Holloway RG (March 2005). "Responsiveness of life-threatening refractory emesis to gabapentin-scopolamine therapy following posterior fossa surgery. Case report". J Neurosurg. 102 (3): 547–9. doi:10.3171/jns.2005.102.3.0547. PMID 15796394.
  13. ↑ Navari RM, Einhorn LH, Passik SD, Loehrer PJ, Johnson C, Mayer ML, McClean J, Vinson J, Pletcher W (July 2005). "A phase II trial of olanzapine for the prevention of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a Hoosier Oncology Group study". Support Care Cancer. 13 (7): 529–34. doi:10.1007/s00520-004-0755-6. PMID 15700131.
  14. ↑ Passik SD, Navari RM, Jung SH, Nagy C, Vinson J, Kirsh KL, Loehrer P (2004). "A phase I trial of olanzapine (Zyprexa) for the prevention of delayed emesis in cancer patients: a Hoosier Oncology Group study". Cancer Invest. 22 (3): 383–8. doi:10.1081/cnv-200029066. PMID 15493359.
  15. ↑ Ernst E, Pittler MH (March 2000). "Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". Br J Anaesth. 84 (3): 367–71. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bja.a013442. PMID 10793599.
  16. ↑ Keating A, Chez RA (2002). "Ginger syrup as an antiemetic in early pregnancy". Altern Ther Health Med. 8 (5): 89–91. PMID 12233808.
  17. ↑ McCallum RW, Dusing RW, Sarosiek I, Cocjin J, Forster J, Lin Z (February 2010). "Mechanisms of symptomatic improvement after gastric electrical stimulation in gastroparetic patients". Neurogastroenterol Motil. 22 (2): 161–7, e50–1. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2982.2009.01389.x. PMID 19719511.
  18. ↑ Marchioro G, Azzarello G, Viviani F, Barbato F, Pavanetto M, Rosetti F, Pappagallo GL, Vinante O (August 2000). "Hypnosis in the treatment of anticipatory nausea and vomiting in patients receiving cancer chemotherapy". Oncology. 59 (2): 100–4. doi:10.1159/000012144. PMID 10971166.
  19. ↑ Lee A, Fan LT (April 2009). "Stimulation of the wrist acupuncture point P6 for preventing postoperative nausea and vomiting". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD003281. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003281.pub3. PMC 3113464. PMID 19370583.

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