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==FIRE: Focused Initial Rapid Evaluation== | ==FIRE: Focused Initial Rapid Evaluation== | ||
The diagnostic approach to the child patient with fever and rash should focus on the appearance of the rash and the detailed epidemiologic history<ref name="pmid11486283">{{cite journal| author=O'Brien D, Tobin S, Brown GV, Torresi J| title=Fever in returned travelers: review of hospital admissions for a 3-year period. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2001 | volume= 33 | issue= 5 | pages= 603-9 | pmid=11486283 | doi=10.1086/322602 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11486283 }}</ref><ref name="pmid146393752">{{cite journal| author=Lupi O, Tyring SK| title=Tropical dermatology: viral tropical diseases. | journal=J Am Acad Dermatol | year= 2003 | volume= 49 | issue= 6 | pages= 979-1000; quiz 1000-2 | pmid=14639375 | doi=10.1016/s0190-9622(03)02727-0 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14639375 }}</ref><ref name="pmid10453260">{{cite journal| author=Suh KN, Kozarsky PE, Keystone JS| title=Evaluation of fever in the returned traveler. | journal=Med Clin North Am | year= 1999 | volume= 83 | issue= 4 | pages= 997-1017 | pmid=10453260 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10453260 }}</ref> | The diagnostic approach to the child patient with fever and rash should focus on the appearance of the rash and the detailed epidemiologic history<ref name="pmid11486283">{{cite journal| author=O'Brien D, Tobin S, Brown GV, Torresi J| title=Fever in returned travelers: review of hospital admissions for a 3-year period. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2001 | volume= 33 | issue= 5 | pages= 603-9 | pmid=11486283 | doi=10.1086/322602 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11486283 }}</ref><ref name="pmid146393752">{{cite journal| author=Lupi O, Tyring SK| title=Tropical dermatology: viral tropical diseases. | journal=J Am Acad Dermatol | year= 2003 | volume= 49 | issue= 6 | pages= 979-1000; quiz 1000-2 | pmid=14639375 | doi=10.1016/s0190-9622(03)02727-0 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14639375 }}</ref><ref name="pmid10453260">{{cite journal| author=Suh KN, Kozarsky PE, Keystone JS| title=Evaluation of fever in the returned traveler. | journal=Med Clin North Am | year= 1999 | volume= 83 | issue= 4 | pages= 997-1017 | pmid=10453260 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10453260 }}</ref> | ||
{{Family tree/start}} | |||
{{Family tree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A01 | | | |A01= Differential diagnosis of fever and rash based on the accompanying symptoms}} | |||
{{Family tree | |,|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | }} | |||
{{Family tree | B01 | | | B02 | | | | | | | | B03 | | | | | | | | B04 | | B05 | | B06 | | B07 | | B08 | | |B01=Arthritis/arthralgia|B02=Desquamation|B03=Lymphadenopathy|B04=Enanthems|B05=Ulcerative/vesicular stomatitis|B06=Palm-soul involvement|B07=Rash predominantly on extremities|B08=Pulmonary infiltrations}} | |||
{{Family tree | |!| | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | }} | |||
{{Family tree | B01 | | | B02 | | B03 | | B04 | | B05 | | B06 | | B07 | | B08 | | B09 | | B10 | | B11 | | |B01=|B02=|B03=Generalized|B04=Hilar|B05=Cervical|B06=Inguinal|B07=|B08=|B09=|B010=|B011=}} | |||
{{Family tree/end}} | |||
[[Seasonal allergy|Season]]<ref name="pmid16177685">{{cite journal| author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)| title=Vibrio illnesses after Hurricane Katrina--multiple states, August-September 2005. | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | year= 2005 | volume= 54 | issue= 37 | pages= 928-31 | pmid=16177685 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16177685 }}</ref><ref name="pmid758155">{{cite journal| author=Blake PA, Merson MH, Weaver RE, Hollis DG, Heublein PC| title=Disease caused by a marine Vibrio. Clinical characteristics and epidemiology. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1979 | volume= 300 | issue= 1 | pages= 1-5 | pmid=758155 | doi=10.1056/NEJM197901043000101 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=758155 }}</ref> | [[Seasonal allergy|Season]]<ref name="pmid16177685">{{cite journal| author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)| title=Vibrio illnesses after Hurricane Katrina--multiple states, August-September 2005. | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | year= 2005 | volume= 54 | issue= 37 | pages= 928-31 | pmid=16177685 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16177685 }}</ref><ref name="pmid758155">{{cite journal| author=Blake PA, Merson MH, Weaver RE, Hollis DG, Heublein PC| title=Disease caused by a marine Vibrio. Clinical characteristics and epidemiology. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1979 | volume= 300 | issue= 1 | pages= 1-5 | pmid=758155 | doi=10.1056/NEJM197901043000101 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=758155 }}</ref> | ||
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{{familytree | | | | | | | A01 | | | A01= Child with fever and rush }} | {{familytree | | | | | | | A01 | | | A01= Child with fever and rush }} | ||
{{familytree | | |,|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|.| | }} | {{familytree | | |,|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|.| | }} | ||
{{familytree | | C01 | | | | | | | | C02 | C01= | {{familytree | | C01 | | | | | | | | C02 | C01= Non-Infectious| C02= Infectious}} | ||
{{familytree | | |!| | | | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | }} | {{familytree | | |!| | | | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | }} | ||
{{familytree | | A01 | | | | A02 | | A03 | | A04 | | | A01= Treat every case according to the cause of disease | A02= Bacterial| A03= Viral| A04= Fungal}} | {{familytree | | A01 | | | | A02 | | A03 | | A04 | | | A01= Treat every case according to the cause of disease | A02= Bacterial| A03= Viral| A04= Fungal}} | ||
{{familytree | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | {{familytree | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | ||
{{familytree | | | | | | | | A01 | | A02 | | A03 | | | A01= Antibiotic and antihistaminic | A02=• Rest<br>• Antipiretics<br>• Plenty of oral fluids| A03= Antifungals according to microorganism}} | {{familytree | | | | | | | | A01 | | A02 | | A03 | | | A01= Antibiotic and antihistaminic | A02=• Rest<br>• Antipiretics<br>• Plenty of oral fluids| A03= Antifungals according to the microorganism}} | ||
{{familytree/end}}<br />[[Antibiotics]] can get rid of the infection, but they will not treat the rash, so we use the antibiotic in: | {{familytree/end}}<br />[[Antibiotics]] can get rid of the infection, but they will not treat the rash, so we use the antibiotic in: | ||
Revision as of 19:05, 26 February 2021
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Eman Alademi, M.D.[2]
Synonyms and keywords:
Fever:
Frenzy,Temperature, Feverishness, Heat, Ferment, Pyrexia,
Excitement, Agitation, Febrile, Feverish, Furor, Sweat, Ecstasy, Febricity, Hyperthermia.
Rush:
Reckless, Impetuous, Impulsive, Hasty, Overhasty, Foolhardy, Incautious, Precipitate, Precipitous, Premature, Careless, Heedless, Thoughtless.
| Fever and rash resident survival guide (pediatrics) Microchapters |
|---|
| Overview |
| Causes |
| FIRE |
| Diagnosis |
| Treatment |
| Do's |
| Don'ts |
Overview
Fever with rash is a common symptom redundancy in patients presenting to clinicians' offices and emergency departments. Skin manifestations may provide the only early clue to an underlying infection, may be the hallmark of contagious disease, and/or may be an early sign of a life-threatening infection or serious noninfectious disorder. The differential diagnosis of fever and rash is extremely broad, but this symptom complex show an fortuity for the exacting clinician to start a probable etiology through a careful history and physical examination.
A systematic method is crucial for starting a timely diagnosis, determining early therapy when appropriate, and considering isolation of the patient if necessary. The treatment must to be belonging to euch cause specifeclly.
and the most important part is the advice that patient have to be aware of fever and rush diseases, to avoid the severity of the fever and rush side effect.
Causes
Life Threatening Causes
Life-threatening causes include conditions that may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.
- Meningococcal infection[1][2]
- Bacterial endocarditis[3][4][5]
- Rocky Mountain spotted fever[6][7][8][9][10]
- Necrotizing fasciitis[11][12]
- Toxic shock syndrome[13][14][15][16]
- Miliary tuberculosis[17][18][19]
Common Causes[20]
- Measles (rubeola)[21]
- Chickenpox (varicella)[22][23]
- Rubella
- Erythema infectiosum (fifth disease)[24][25][26]
- Roseola infantum (exanthem subitum; sixth disease)[27]
- Scarlet fever[28]
- Acute rheumatic fever(ARF)[29]
- Kawasaki syndrome[30]
- Enteroviruses[31][32]
- Mononucleosis[33][34]
- Arcanobacterium haemolyticum[35]
- Mycoplasma pneumoniae[36]
FIRE: Focused Initial Rapid Evaluation
The diagnostic approach to the child patient with fever and rash should focus on the appearance of the rash and the detailed epidemiologic history[37][38][39]
| Differential diagnosis of fever and rash based on the accompanying symptoms | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Arthritis/arthralgia | Desquamation | Lymphadenopathy | Enanthems | Ulcerative/vesicular stomatitis | Palm-soul involvement | Rash predominantly on extremities | Pulmonary infiltrations | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Generalized | Hilar | Cervical | Inguinal | {{{ B10 }}} | {{{ B11 }}} | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Geography
Exposure history[42][43][44][45][46]
Arthropod exposures[47][48][49][50][51]
Medication history[52]
Immunization history[53][54][55][56]
Immunocompetence of the host[60][61]
Complete Diagnostic Approach
Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the diagnosis of fever and rush according the the 2021 UpToDate, Inc. and/or its affiliatesin three categories:
1.Characteristics of the rash:
Macules, papules, nodules, or plaques
Noninfectious
Drug hypersensitivities
Pityriasis rosea (fever rare)
Sweet syndrome (acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis)
Still's disease (juvenile idiopathic arthritis)
Bacterial
Bartonella henselae (cat scratch disease)
Bartonella quintana (trench fever)
Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease)
Borrelia spp (relapsing fever)
Brucella spp (brucellosis)
Calymmatobacterium granulomatis (donovanosis)
Chlamydia psittaci (psittacosis)
Ehrlichia chafeensis (HME)
Human granulocytic erlichiosis
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (erysipeloid)
Francisella tularensis (tularemia)
Leptospira spp (leptospirosis)
Neisseria gonorrhoeae (gonorrhea)
Neisseria meningitidis (meningococcemia)
Rickettsia akari (rickettsialpox)
Rickettsia prowazekii (epidemic/louse-borne typhus)
Rickettsia rickettsii (RMSF-early lesions)
Rickettsia orientalis/tsutsugamushi (scrub typhus)
Rickettsia typhi (endemic/murine typhus)
Salmonella typhi (typhoid fever)
Spirillum minor (rat-bite fever)
Fungal
Candida spp
Other disseminated deep fungal infections in immunocompromised patients
Viral
Atypical measles
Chikungunya virus
Coxsackieviruses A and B
Cytomegalovirus, primary infection
Epstein-Barr virus, primary infection
Echoviruses
Human herpesvirus 6 (exanthem subitum)
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1)
Kawasaki syndrome (presumed viral)
Parvovirus B19 (erythema infectiosum [fifth disease])
Varicella-zoster (disseminated)
Viral hemorrhagic fevers (many)
Vesicles, bullae, or pustules
Noninfectious
Erythema multiforme bullosum
Dermatitis from plants
Drug hypersensitivities
Bacterial
Ehrlichia canis
Rickettsia akari
Staphylococcus aureus (TSS, SSSS)
Streptococcus group A
Treponema pallidum (secondary syphilis)
Fungal
Viral
Coxsackie A5, 9, 10, 16, B2, 7
Echoviruses
Varicella-zoster (disseminated)
Purpuric macules, purpuric papules, or purpuric vesicles
Noninfectious
"Allergic" vasculitis
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (purpura fulminans)
Drug hypersensitivities
Immune thrombocytopenic purpura
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener's)
Bacterial
Borrelia spp
Clostridium spp
Infective endocarditis (many species)
Haemophilus influenzae type B
Neisseria gonorrhoeae (disseminated gonococcal infection)
Neisseria meningitidis (acute or chronic meningococcemia)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Spirillum minor
Staphylococcus aureus (bacteremia)
Streptococcus group A (streptococcal toxic shock syndrome, scarlet fever)
Streptococcus pneumoniae (asplenic patient)
Viral
Adenovirus (rare)
Atypical measles
Chikungunya virus
Coxsackie A and B (rare, types A-9, B2-5)
Epstein-Barr virus (rare)
Echoviruses (rare, types 3, 4, 9)
Widespread erythema with or without edema followed by desquamation
Noninfectious
Drug hypersensitivities
Graft-versus-host reaction
von Zumbusch pustular psoriasis
Bacterial
Streptococcus group A (scarlet fever, streptococcal toxic shock syndrome)
Stapylococcus aureus (TSS, SSSS)
Viral
Kawasaki syndrome (presumed viral)
Differential diagnosis of fever and rash based upon accompanying signs:
Arthritis or arthralgia
Disseminated gonoccal
Erythema marginatum(acute rheumatic fever)
hepatitis B virus, prodromal phase.
roseola (especially in adults)
stills disease
Desquamation
Arcanobacterium haemolyticum infection
Graft-versus-host reaction
Staphylococcal scalded-skin syndrome
von Zumbusch pustular psoriasis
Lymphadenopathy
Cervical
Generalized
Hilar
Atypical measles
Local
Meningitis
Enterovirus (Coxsackieviruses, echoviruses)
Mucosal membrane lesions (enanthems)
Infectious mononucleosis (palatal petechiae)
Measles (Koplick's spots)= Strawberry tongue,Atypical measles,Kawasaki disease,Scarlet fever,Toxic shock syndrome
Ulcerative or vesicular stomatitis
Palm-sole involvement
Atypical measles
Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis
Rash predominantly on extremities
Disseminated gonococcal infection
Sporotrichosis (fever rare)
Pulmonary infiltrate
Atypical measles
North American blastomycosis
2.Physical examination
- General appearance to assess the severity of illness
- Strict attention to lymph nodes, mucous membranes, conjunctivae, and genitalia
- Meningeal signs and complete neurologic evaluation
- Joint examination
- Skin examination
3.Laboratory testing
- Nonspecific tests like: complete blood count and urinalysis
- Blood cultures (including specific media and isolation methods for bacterial, mycobacterial, and fungal organisms) should be inoculated prior to beginning antimicrobial therapy
- Serologic tests, when appropriate (eg, for Coccidioides immitis, hepatitis B, Toxoplasma gondii, Borrelia burgdorferi, Treponema pallidum, dengue virus, and HIV)
- Antigen tests, when appropriate (eg, serum cryptococcal antigen)
- herpes simplex virus and varicella-zoster virus can be diagnosed with direct fluorescent antibody or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. Viral culture can also be performed
- In suspected cases of syphilis, can be evaluated with darkfield microscopy or direct fluorescent antibody testing
- in suspected cases of Rocky Mountain spotted fever, direct immunofluorescent demonstration of rickettsial organisms is diagnostic
Treatment
Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the treatment of fever and rush disease according the the [...] guidelines.
Treatment of fever depending on the cause of the symptoms, in severe cases, a child might sometimes need to stay in the hospital.
patient of fever can take acetaminophen and ibuprofen, if patient have itchy viral rash, you can try applying a cool compress or calamine lotion to the affected area.
| Child with fever and rush | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Non-Infectious | Infectious | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Treat every case according to the cause of disease | Bacterial | Viral | Fungal | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Antibiotic and antihistaminic | • Rest • Antipiretics • Plenty of oral fluids | Antifungals according to the microorganism | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Antibiotics can get rid of the infection, but they will not treat the rash, so we use the antibiotic in:
- cellulitis and similar skin infections.
- strep infections.
- A viral rash becomes infected, especially if a child scratches it a lot. So a child might need antibiotics.
Do's[62]
- Cough etiquette, contact precautions, and hand hygiene are easy and cost-effective measures in reducing the spread of infectious agents causing fever and rash.
- For measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) prevention can be achieved by vaccination (two doses in childhood). In adolescents and adults, if none confirmatory immunization documentation exists, they need to receive two doses of MMR, at least 4-week apart.(Vaccines have been accepted in most national immunization programs)
- Prevention of varicella and meningococcemia can also be achieved by vaccination. (vaccines have been accepted in most national immunization programs).
- For meningococcal disease, chemoprophylaxis can also be useful. Among household contacts, the incidence of transmission of meningococcus is approximately 5%; therefore, it is recommended that household contacts of bacteriologically confirmed cases receive rifampin (adults: 600 mg bid for a total of 4 doses; children older than 1 month: 10 mg/kg; children younger than 1 month: 5 mg/kg). These contacts should be advised to watch for fever, rash, sore throat, or any symptoms of meningitis. Intimate, non-household contacts who have had mucosal exposure to the patient’s oral secretions should also receive prophylaxis. Health-care workers are not at an increased risk for the disease and do not require prophylaxis unless they have had direct mucosal contact with patient secretions (i.e., mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, endotracheal intubation, or nasotracheal suctioning). Ciprofloxacin (500 mg by mouth; adults only) or ceftriaxone (250 mg IM for adults or 125 mg IM for children) are single dose alternatives.
- With the increasing vector borne diseases (e.g., Zika, chinkungunya, dengue, yellow fever) efforts to prevent mosquito bites are cornerstone. Some of the recommended measures in persons living or traveling to endemic areas are:
- Long-sleeved shirts and pants.
- If possible, keep indoors at sunset.
- Cover water storage containers so that mosquitos cannot get inside to lay eggs.
- Discard or empty regularly any items that hold water like tires, buckets, pools, birdbaths, flowerpot saucers, or trash containers.
- Sleep under a mosquito bed net if you are overseas or outside and are not able to protect yourself from mosquito bites.
- Use Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-registered insect repellents with one of the following active ingredients: DEET (≥20%), picardin, IR3535, oil of lemon eucalyptus, or para-menthane-diol. For men who live in or have traveled to an area with Zika, and have a pregnant partner they either have to use condoms correctly from start to finish, every time they have vaginal, anal, and oral sex, or do not have sex during pregnancy. Women who had Zika virus disease should wait at least 8 weeks after exposure to attempt conception and men with Zika virus disease should wait at least 6 months after symptom onset to attempt conception. Women and men with possible exposure to Zika virus but without clinical illness consistent with Zika virus disease should wait at least 8 weeks after exposure to attempt conception.
Don'ts
- Suggest not combining or alternating acetaminophen with ibuprofen.
- Suggest not using external cooling for temperature reduction.
- Suggest not to clean the rush area to avoid the secondary infection by chemical products.
- Avoiding unnecessary drug prescriptions prevents drug-related adverse events.
- MMR is contraindicated in pregnancy, HIV with CD4 lymphocyte < 200 cells/mm3, or immunecompromised patients.
- There are variations across the globe depending on the epidemiology of the disease (e.g., meningococcal disease), health budget, and authority decisions (e.g., varicella vaccine is not on the immunization program of France or the United Kingdom).
References
- ↑ Ferguson LE, Hormann MD, Parks DK, Yetman RJ (2002). "Neisseria meningitidis: presentation, treatment, and prevention". J Pediatr Health Care. 16 (3): 119–24. PMID 12015670.
- ↑ Toews WH, Bass JW (1974). "Skin manifestations of meningococcal infection; an immediate indicator of prognosis". Am J Dis Child. 127 (2): 173–6. doi:10.1001/archpedi.1974.02110210023003. PMID 4204016 PMID 4204016 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Durack DT, Lukes AS, Bright DK (1994). "New criteria for diagnosis of infective endocarditis: utilization of specific echocardiographic findings. Duke Endocarditis Service". Am J Med. 96 (3): 200–9. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(94)90143-0. PMID 8154507.
- ↑ Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, Fowler VG, Tleyjeh IM, Rybak MJ; et al. (2015). "Infective Endocarditis in Adults: Diagnosis, Antimicrobial Therapy, and Management of Complications: A Scientific Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association". Circulation. 132 (15): 1435–86. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000296. PMID 26373316.
- ↑ Pant S, Patel NJ, Deshmukh A, Golwala H, Patel N, Badheka A; et al. (2015). "Trends in infective endocarditis incidence, microbiology, and valve replacement in the United States from 2000 to 2011". J Am Coll Cardiol. 65 (19): 2070–6. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2015.03.518. PMID 25975469.
- ↑ Thorner AR, Walker DH, Petri WA (1998). "Rocky mountain spotted fever". Clin Infect Dis. 27 (6): 1353–9, quiz 1360. doi:10.1086/515037. PMID 9868640.
- ↑ Helmick CG, Bernard KW, D'Angelo LJ (1984). "Rocky Mountain spotted fever: clinical, laboratory, and epidemiological features of 262 cases". J Infect Dis. 150 (4): 480–8. doi:10.1093/infdis/150.4.480. PMID 6491365.
- ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2004). "Fatal cases of Rocky Mountain spotted fever in family clusters--three states, 2003". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 53 (19): 407–10. PMID 15152183.
- ↑ Kirk JL, Fine DP, Sexton DJ, Muchmore HG (1990). "Rocky Mountain spotted fever. A clinical review based on 48 confirmed cases, 1943-1986". Medicine (Baltimore). 69 (1): 35–45. PMID 2299975.
- ↑ Thorner AR, Walker DH, Petri WA (1998). "Rocky mountain spotted fever". Clin Infect Dis. 27 (6): 1353–9, quiz 1360. doi:10.1086/515037. PMID 9868640.
- ↑ Giuliano A, Lewis F, Hadley K, Blaisdell FW (1977). "Bacteriology of necrotizing fasciitis". Am J Surg. 134 (1): 52–7. doi:10.1016/0002-9610(77)90283-5. PMID 327844.
- ↑ Laucks SS (1994). "Fournier's gangrene". Surg Clin North Am. 74 (6): 1339–52. doi:10.1016/s0039-6109(16)46485-6. PMID 7985069.
- ↑ Todd J, Fishaut M, Kapral F, Welch T (1978). "Toxic-shock syndrome associated with phage-group-I Staphylococci". Lancet. 2 (8100): 1116–8. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(78)92274-2. PMID 82681.
- ↑ Davis JP, Chesney PJ, Wand PJ, LaVenture M (1980). "Toxic-shock syndrome: epidemiologic features, recurrence, risk factors, and prevention". N Engl J Med. 303 (25): 1429–35. doi:10.1056/NEJM198012183032501. PMID 7432401.
- ↑ Shands KN, Schmid GP, Dan BB, Blum D, Guidotti RJ, Hargrett NT; et al. (1980). "Toxic-shock syndrome in menstruating women: association with tampon use and Staphylococcus aureus and clinical features in 52 cases". N Engl J Med. 303 (25): 1436–42. doi:10.1056/NEJM198012183032502. PMID 7432402.
- ↑ Stevens DL (1996). "The toxic shock syndromes". Infect Dis Clin North Am. 10 (4): 727–46. doi:10.1016/s0891-5520(05)70324-x. PMID 8958166.
- ↑ Rieder HL, Kelly GD, Bloch AB, Cauthen GM, Snider DE (1991). "Tuberculosis diagnosed at death in the United States". Chest. 100 (3): 678–81. doi:10.1378/chest.100.3.678. PMID 1889256.
- ↑ Dias MF, Bernardes Filho F, Quaresma MV, Nascimento LV, Nery JA, Azulay DR (2014). "Update on cutaneous tuberculosis". An Bras Dermatol. 89 (6): 925–38. doi:10.1590/abd1806-4841.20142998. PMC 4230662. PMID 25387498.
- ↑ Barbagallo J, Tager P, Ingleton R, Hirsch RJ, Weinberg JM (2002). "Cutaneous tuberculosis: diagnosis and treatment". Am J Clin Dermatol. 3 (5): 319–28. doi:10.2165/00128071-200203050-00004. PMID 12069638.
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